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Nathan Marsh Pusey

Nathan Marsh Pusey

Nathan Marsh Pusey (4 April 1907–14 November 2001) was a prominent American educator. He was born in Council Bluffs, Iowa, and completed his education at Harvard (B.A., 1928, M.A., 1932, Ph.D., 1937), where he studied first English literature and then ancient history. He taught at Riverdale Country Day School, Lawrence College, Scripps College, and Wesleyan University. He served as president of Lawrence College (1944-1953), and later as the 24th president of Harvard University (1953-1971). Pusey vigorously opposed McCarthyism in the 1950s and supported the U.S. Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. His clashes with Joseph McCarthy were especially significant because Pusey's position at Lawrence College placed him right in the middle of the senator's hometown of Appleton, Wisconsin and political power base of the conservative Fox Valley. As president of the college, Pusey held great respect in the community, and his vocal criticisms of McCarthy resounded loudly in the area. He was, on the other hand, a deeply religious man and a somewhat traditionalist scholar, and he was appalled by the student radicalism that raged in American universities in the late 1960's. He complained bitterly that "learning has almost ceased" in many universities, because of the violent, revolutionary activities of a "small group of overeager young...who feel they have a special calling to redeem society." When, in April of 1969, student activists occupied Harvard's University Hall (the building that housed most of the administrative offices) in protest over the presence of ROTC on campus at the height of the Vietnam War, Pusey summoned the police to arrest the demonstrators. Although he was fully within his legal right in doing so, the decision was very divisive. It is generally believed that the ensuing controversy contributed to his early retirement in 1971. After departing from Harvard, Pusey served as president of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (1971-1975) and was president of the United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia (1979-1980).

Works

- The Age of the Scholar,1963
- American Higher Education 1945-1970: A Personal Report, 1978

External links

- [http://www.lawrence.edu/about/pusey.shtml Biography at Lawrence University]
- [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/11.15/01-pusey.html Obituary in the Harvard Gazette] Pusey, Nathan M. Pusey, Nathan M. Pusey, Nathan M. Pusey, Nathan M.

4 April

April 4 is the 94th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (95th in leap years). There are 271 days remaining.

Events

- 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- 1721 - Sir Robert Walpole enters office as the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom under King George I.
- 1812 - U.S. President James Madison enacted a ninety-day embargo on trade with the United Kingdom.
- 1814 - Napoleon abdicates for the first time.
- 1818 - The U.S. Congress adopts the flag of the United States as having 13 red and white stripes and one star for each state (20 stars) with additional stars to be added whenever a new state is added to the Union.
- 1841 - President William Henry Harrison dies of pneumonia becoming the first President of the United States to die in office and at one month, the elected president with the shortest term served.
- 1850 - Los Angeles, California is incorporated as a city.
- 1859 - Bryant's Minstrels debut "Dixie" in New York City in the finale of a blackface minstrel show.
- 1865 - American Civil War: A day after Union forces captured Richmond, Virginia, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln visits the Confederate capital.
- 1866 - Alexander II of Russia narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of Kiev. A design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for Mussorgsky's The Great Gate of Kiev from Pictures at an Exhibition.
- 1887 - Argonia, Kansas elects Susanna M. Salter as the first female mayor in the United States.
- 1905 - In India, an earthquake near Kangra kills 370,000.
- 1918 - World War I: Second Battle of the Somme ends.
- 1939 - Faisal II becomes King of Iraq.
- 1945 - World War II: American troops liberate Ohrdruf death camp in Germany.
- 1945 - World War II: Soviet Army liberates Hungary.
- 1949 - Twelve nations sign The North Atlantic Treaty creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.
- 1964 - The Beatles occupy all of the top five positions on the Billboard singles chart in the United States.
- 1968 - Martin Luther King Jr. assassinated.
- 1968 - Apollo program: NASA launches Apollo 6.
- 1969 - Dr. Denton Cooley implants the first temporary artificial heart.
- 1969 - The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour is cancelled after the brothers failed to submit an episode before its broadcast date.
- 1973 - The World Trade Center in New York is officially dedicated.
- 1974 - Hank Aaron, of the Atlanta Braves, ties Babe Ruth's home run record of 714 in the first inning against the Cincinnati Reds. Jack Billingham was the Reds pitcher who gave up the record tying home run. Ralph Garr was on second base at the time of the home run.
- 1975 - Vietnam War: Operation Baby Lift - A United States Air Force C-5A Galaxy crashes near Saigon, South Vietnam shortly after takeoff, transporting orphans. 172 people are killed.
- 1976 - Prince Norodom Sihanouk resigns as leader of Cambodia and is placed under house arrest.
- 1979 - President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan is executed.
- 1981 - In Dublin, Ireland, Bucks Fizz win the twenty-sixth Eurovision Song Contest for the United Kingdom singing "Making Your Mind Up".
- 1983 - Space Shuttle Challenger makes its maiden voyage into space.
- 1984 - President Ronald Reagan calls for an international ban on chemical weapons.
- 1988 - Governor Evan Mecham of Arizona is convicted in his impeachment trial and removed from office.
- 1991 - Senator John Heinz of Pennsylvania and six others are killed when a helicopter collides with their plane over Merion, Pennsylvania.
- 1994 - Netscape Communications Corporation is founded (under the name "Mosaic Communications Corporation") by Marc Andreessen and Jim Clark.
- 2003 - Sammy Sosa becomes the 18th member of the 500 home run club with a home run at Great American Ball Park in Cincinnati, Ohio.
- 2004 - Muqtada al-Sadr's Mahdi Army stage an uprising in several towns and cities in Iraq after the Coalition's closure of Sadr's al-Hawza newspaper. Among the dozen or so coalition casualties in this was Casey Sheehan.

Births

- 186 - Caracalla, Roman emperor (d. 217)
- 1492 - Ambrosius Blarer, German reformer (d. 1564)
- 1593 - Edward Nicholas, English statesman (d. 1669)
- 1646 - Antoine Galland, French archaeologist (d. 1715)
- 1648 - Grinling Gibbons Dutch-born woodcarver (d. 1721)
- 1688 - Joseph-Nicolas Delisle, French astronomer (d. 1768)
- 1718 - Benjamin Kennicott, English churchman and Hebrew scholar (d. 1783)
- 1785 - Bettina von Arnim, German writer (d. 1859)
- 1802 - Dorothea Dix, American social activist (d. 1887)
- 1819 - Queen Maria II of Portugal (d. 1853)
- 1846 - Comte de Lautréamont, French writer (d. 1870)
- 1875 - Pierre Monteux, French conductor (d. 1964)
- 1876 - Maurice de Vlaminck, French painter (d. 1958)
- 1884 - Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese naval commander (d. 1943)
- 1888 - Tris Speaker, baseball player (d. 1958)
- 1895 - Arthur Murray, American dance teacher (d. 1991)
- 1898 - Agnes Ayres, American actress (d. 1940)
- 1902 - Louise Leveque de Vilmorin, French actress (d. 1969)
- 1906 - Bea Benaderet, American actress (d. 1968)
- 1906 - John Cameron Swayze, American journalist and television host (d. 1995)
- 1911 - Max Dupain, Australian photographer (d. 1992)
- 1913 - Frances Langford, American actress (d. 2005)
- 1914 - Marguerite Duras, French writer (d. 1996)
- 1915 - Muddy Waters, American musician (d. 1983)
- 1920 - Eric Rohmer, French film director
- 1922 - Elmer Bernstein, American composer (d. 2004)
- 1924 - Gil Hodges, baseball player (d. 1972)
- 1928 - Maya Angelou, American writer
- 1931 - Bobby Ray Inman, American admiral and intelligence director
- 1932 - Anthony Perkins, American actor (d. 1992)
- 1932 - Andrei Tarkovsky, Russian film director (d. 1986)
- 1932 - Richard Lugar, American politician
- 1934 - Clive Davis, American record producer
- 1938 - A. Bartlett Giamatti, American university president and baseball commissioner
- 1939 - Hugh Masekela, South African musician
- 1940 - Sharon Sheeley, American songwriter
- 1942 - Kitty Kelley, American writer
- 1944 - Craig T. Nelson, American actor
- 1945 - Daniel Cohn-Bendit, French political activist
- 1946 - Dave Hill, English guitarist (Slade)
- 1947 - Luke Halpin, American actor
- 1947 - Wiranto, Indonesian general
- 1948 - Dan Simmons, American writer
- 1948 - Abdullah Öcalan, Kurdish leader
- 1950 - Christine Lahti, American actress
- 1951 - Hun Sen, Prime Minister of Cambodia
- 1952 - Rosemarie Ackermann, German athlete
- 1956 - David E. Kelley, American writer and television producer
- 1957 - Aki Kaurismäki, Finnish film director
- 1957 - Nobuyoshi Kuwano, Japanese television performer and musician (Rats & Star)
- 1958 - Mary-Margaret Humes, American actress
- 1960 - Jane Eaglin, English soprano
- 1960 - Hugo Weaving, Australian actor
- 1963 - Jack Del Rio, American football player and coach
- 1963 - Graham Norton, Irish talk show host
- 1965 - Robert Downey Jr., American actor
- 1968 - Jennifer Lynch, American director
- 1970 - Barry Pepper, Canadian actor
- 1973 - David Blaine, American illusionist
- 1974 - Dave Mirra, American athlete
- 1975 - Scott Rolen, baseball player
- 1975 - Delphine Arnault, billionaire French businesswoman LVMH
- 1979 - Heath Ledger, Australian actor
- 1979 - Natasha Lyonne, American actress
- 1980 - Björn Wirdheim, Swedish race car driver
- 1985 - Casey Carmody, American actor
- 1991 - Jamie Lynn Spears, American television show host
- 1991 - Justin van Wijk, Dutch-Canadian football player

Deaths

- 397 - St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan
- 896 - Pope Formosus (b. 816)
- 1284 - King Alfonso X of Castile (b. 1221)
- 1292 - Pope Nicholas IV (b. 1227)
- 1305 - Jeanne of Navarre, queen of Philip IV of France
- 1536 - Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (b. 1460)
- 1588 - King Frederick II of Denmark (b. 1534
- 1609 - Charles de L'Ecluse, Flemish botanist (b. 1526)
- 1617 - John Napier, Scottish mathematician (b. 1550)
- 1643 - Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian (b. 1583)
- 1661 - Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven, Scottish soldier
- 1701 - Joseph Haines, entertainer and author
- 1743 - Daniel Neal, English historian (b. 1678)
- 1761 - Theodore Gardelle, Swiss painter and enameler (b. 1722)
- 1766 - John Taylor, English classical scholar (b. 1704)
- 1774 - Oliver Goldsmith, English writer (b. 1728)
- 1792 - James Sykes, American politician (b. 1725)
- 1807 - Joseph Jérôme Lefrançais de Lalande, French astronomer (b. 1732)
- 1817 - André Masséna, French marshal (b. 1758)
- 1841 - William Henry Harrison, 9th President of the United States (b. 1773)
- 1842 - Jean Moufot, French philosopher and mathematician (b. 1784)
- 1846 - Solomon Sibley, Senator from Michigan Territory (b. 1769)
- 1861 - John McLean, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1785)
- 1870 - Heinrich Gustav Magnus, German chemist and physicist (b. 1802)
- 1874 - Charles Ernest Beulé, French archaelogist and politician (b. 1826)
- 1879 - Heinrich Wilhelm Dove, German physicist (b. 1803)
- 1884 - Marie Bashkirtseff, Russian artist and diarist (b. 1860)
- 1919 - Sir William Crookes, English chemist and physicist (b. 1832)
- 1923 - John Venn, British mathematician (b. 1834)
- 1932 - Wilhelm Ostwald, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1853)
- 1951 - Al Christie, Canadian film director and producer (b. 1881)
- 1951 - George Albert Smith, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1870)
- 1953 - King Carol II of Romania (b. 1893)
- 1967 - Héctor Scarone, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1898)
- 1968 - Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., American civil rights activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (assassinated) (b. 1929)
- 1972 - Adam Clayton Powell Jr., American politician (b. 1908)
- 1972 - Stefan Wolpe, German-born composer (b. 1902)
- 1979 - Ali Bhutto, President and Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1928)
- 1979 - Edgar Buchanan, American actor (b. 1903)
- 1983 - Gloria Swanson, American actress (b. 1897)
- 1984 - Oleg Antonov, Russian airplane engineer (b. 1906)
- 1987 - C.L. Moore, American writer (b. 1911)
- 1991 - Max Frisch, Swiss writer (b. 1911)
- 1991 - H. John Heinz III, U.S. Senator (plane crash) (b. 1938)
- 1991 - Forrest Towns, American hurdler (b. 1914)
- 1995 - Priscilla Lane, American singer, actress
- 1996 - Barney Ewell, American athlete (b. 1918)
- 1996 - Larry LaPrise, American songwriter (b. 1913)
- 1999 - Early Wynn, baseball player (b. 1920)
- 2001 - Ed "Big Daddy" Roth, American custom car designer (b. 1932)
- 2002 - Harry L. O'Connor, Czech-born film stuntman
- 2003 - Resortes, Mexican comedian (b. 1916)

Holidays and observances

- Lesotho - Heroes' Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4 BBC: On This Day] ----- April 3 - April 5 - March 4 - May 4 -- listing of all days ko:4월 4일 ms:4 April ja:4月4日 simple:April 4 th:4 เมษายน

14 November

November 14 is the 318th day of the year (319th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 47 days remaining.

Events

- 1851 - Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick is published in the U.S. by Harper & Brothers, New York - after it was first published on October 18, 1851 by Richard Bentley, London.
- 1862 - American Civil War: President Abraham Lincoln approves General Ambrose Burnside's plan to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia, leading to the Battle of Fredericksburg.
- 1889 - Pioneer woman journalist Nellie Bly (Elizabeth Cochrane) begins a successful attempt to travel around the world in less than 80 days.
- 1911 - Aviation pioneer Eugene Ely performs the first take-off from a ship in Hampton Roads, VA. He took off from a makeshift deck on the light cruiser USS Birmingham in a Curtiss pusher.
- 1918 - Czechoslovakia becomes a republic.
- 1921 - The Communist Party of Spain is founded.
- 1922 - The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) begins radio service in the United Kingdom.
- 1940 - World War II: In England, the city of Coventry is heavily bombed by German Luftwaffe bombers.
- 1941 - World War II: The aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal sinks due to torpedo damage from U 81 sustained on November 13.
- 1952 - First regular UK singles chart published by the New Musical Express.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: Battle of the Ia Drang begins - the first major engagement between regular American and North Vietnamese forces.
- 1969 - Apollo program: NASA launches Apollo 12, the second manned mission to the surface of the Moon.
- 1970 - Southern Airways DC-9 crashes in the mountains near Huntington, West Virginia, killing 75, including members of the Marshall University football team.
- 1971 - Mariner program: Mariner 9 reaches Mars, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit another planet.
- 1971 - His Holiness Shenouda III was concescrated as the 117th Patriarch of Alexandria and the See of St. Mark, the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church.
- 1972 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above 1,000 (1,003.16) for the first time.
- 1973 - In the United Kingdom, Princess Anne marries Captain Mark Phillips, in Westminster Abbey.
- 1974 - Ronald DeFeo, Jr. murders his family in their Amityville, New York home.
- 1975 - Spain abandons Western Sahara.
- 1979 - Iran hostage crisis: US President Jimmy Carter issues Executive order12170, freezing all Iranian assets in the United States in response to the hostage crisis.
- 1982 - Lech Wałęsa, the leader of Poland's outlawed Solidarity movement, is released after eleven months of internment near the Soviet border.
- 1990 - After German reunification, the (extended) Federal Republic of Germany and the Republic of Poland sign a treaty confirming the Oder-Neisse line as the border between Germany and Poland.
- 1991 - American and British authorities announce indictments against two Libyan intelligence officials in connection with the downing of the Pan Am Flight 103.
- 1991 - Cambodian Prince Norodom Sihanouk returns to Phnom Penh after thirteen years of exile.
- 1991 - A fired United States Postal Service employee goes on a shooting rampage, killing four and wounding five, before committing suicide.
- 1995 - A budget standoff between Democrats and Republicans in the U.S. Congress forces the federal government to temporarily close national parks and museums and to run most government offices with skeleton staffs.
- 2000 - Netscape Navigator version 6.0 is launched following two years of open source development.
- 2001 - Attack on Afghanistan: Afghan Northern Alliance fighters takeover the capital Kabul.
- 2002 - Argentina defaults on an $805 million World Bank payment.
- 2002 - The US House of Representatives votes to not create an independent commission to investigate the September 11 attacks.
- 2003 - Planetoid 90377 Sedna is discovered.
- 2005 - Silver Star Mountain Resort opens its 2005-2006 ski season.

Births

1567 to 1899

- 1567 - Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (d. 1625)
- 1650 - King William III of England (d. 1702)
- 1719 - Leopold Mozart, Austrian composer (d. 1787)
- 1765 - Robert Fulton, American inventor (d. 1815)
- 1771 - Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and pysiologist (d. 1802)
- 1776 - Henri Dutrochet, French physiologist (d. 1847)
- 1779 - Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger, Danish poet (d. 1850)
- 1797 - Charles Lyell, British geologist (d. 1875)
- 1803 - Jacob Abbott, American writer (d. 1879)
- 1805 - Fanny Mendelssohn, German composer and pianist (d. 1847)
- 1812 - Aleardo Aleardi, Italian poet (d. 1878)
- 1828 - James B. McPherson, American Civil War general (d. 1864)
- 1838 - August Senoa, Croatian writer (d. 1881)
- 1840 - Claude Monet, French painter (d. 1926)
- 1878 - Leopold Staff, Polish poet (d. 1957)
- 1883 - Fred Quimby, American film producer (d. 1965)
- 1889 - Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India (d. 1964)
- 1891 - Frederick Banting, Canadian physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1941)
- 1896 - Mamie Eisenhower, First Lady of the United States (d. 1979)

1900 to 1999

- 1900 - Aaron Copland, American composer (d. 1990)
- 1904 - Harold Larwood, English cricketer (d. 1995)
- 1904 - Dick Powell, American actor (d. 1963)
- 1905 - John Henry Barbee, American guitarist and singer (d. 1964)
- 1906 - Louise Brooks, American actress (d. 1985)
- 1907 - Howard W. Hunter, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1995)
- 1907 - Astrid Lindgren, Swedish writer (d. 2002)
- 1907 - William Steig, American cartoonist and children's book author (d. 2003)
- 1908 - Joseph McCarthy, U.S. Senator and anti-communist (d. 1957)
- 1910 - Eric Malpass, English novelist (d. 1996)
- 1912 - Barbara Hutton, American socialite (d. 1979)
- 1912 - T. Y. Lin, Chinese-born civil engineer (d. 2003)
- 1915 - Martha Tilton, American singer
- 1916 - Roger Apéry, French mathematician (d. 1994)
- 1916 - Sherwood Schwartz, American television writer and producer
- 1919 - Veronica Lake, American actress (d. 1973)
- 1919 - Lisa Otto, German soprano
- 1921 - Brian Keith, American actor (d. 1997)
- 1922 - Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egyptian UN Secretary-General
- 1924 - Leonid Borisovitch Kogan, Russian violinist (d. 1982)
- 1927 - Bart Cummings, Australian race horse trainer
- 1929 - Jimmy Piersall, baseball player
- 1939 - McLean Stevenson, American actor (d. 1996)
- 1930 - Edward White, astronaut (d. 1967)
- 1935 - King Hussein of Jordan (d. 1999)
- 1939 - Wendy Carlos, American composer
- 1943 - Peter Norton, American software engineer and businessman
- 1945 - Stella Obasanjo, Nigerian First Lady
- 1947 - P. J. O'Rourke, American writer
- 1948 - Charles, Prince of Wales
- 1951 - Stephen Bishop, American musician
- 1953 - Dominique de Villepin, Prime Minister of France
- 1954 - Bernard Hinault, French cyclist
- 1954 - Condoleezza Rice, United States Secretary of State
- 1954 - Yanni, Greek musician
- 1959 - Paul McGann, British actor
- 1964 - Bill Hemmer, American television news reporter
- 1966 - Curt Schilling, American baseball player
- 1967 - Letitia Dean, British actress
- 1967 - Nina Gordon, American singer and songwriter
- 1971 - Adam Gilchrist, Australian cricketer
- 1972 - Martin Pike, Australian footballer
- 1973 - Lawyer Milloy, American football player
- 1973 - Dana Snyder, American voice actor
- 1975 - Travis Barker, American drummer
- 1978 - Xavier Nady, baseball player

Deaths

- 565 - Justinian the Great, Byzantine Emperor (b. 483)
- 1226 - Frederick of Isenberg, German politician (executed) (b. 1193)
- 1263 - Alexander Nevsky, Grand Prince of Novgorod and Vladimir
- 1359 - Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessalonica (b. 1296)
- 1522 - Anne de Beaujeu, Princess and Regent of France (b. 1461)
- 1556 - Giovanni della Casa, Italian poet (b. 1504)
- 1633 - William Ames, English philosopher (b. 1576)
- 1687 - Nell Gwynne, English mistress of Charles II of England (b. 1650)
- 1691 - Tosa Mitsuoki, Japanese painter (b. 1617)
- 1716 - Gottfried Leibniz, German philosopher and mathematician (b. 1646)
- 1734 - Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth, French-born mistress of Charles II of England (b. 1649)
- 1746 - Georg Steller, German naturalist (b. 1709)
- 1825 - Jean Paul, German writer (b. 1763)
- 1829 - Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, French pharmacist and chemist (b. 1763)
- 1831 - Georg Hegel, German philosopher (b. 1770)
- 1832 - Charles Carroll of Carrollton, signer of the American Declaration of Independence and U.S. Senator (b. 1732)
- 1844 - John Abercrombie, British physician (b. 1780)
- 1866 - King Miguel of Portugal (b. 1802)
- 1907 - Andrew Inglis Clark, Australian politician (b. 1848)
- 1908 - The Guangxu Emperor of China, (b. 1871)
- 1915 - Booker T. Washington, American inventor, educator, and author (b. 1856)
- 1916 - Saki, British writer (b. 1870)
- 1944 - Carl Flesch, Hungarian violinist (b. 1873)
- 1946 - Manuel de Falla, Spanish composer (b. 1876)
- 1972 - Martin Dies, Jr., American politician (b. 1900)
- 1992 - Ernst Happel, Austrian football coach (b. 1925)
- 1994 - Tom Villard, American actor (b. 1953)
- 1997 - Eddie Arcaro, American jockey (b. 1916)
- 2000 - Robert Trout, American journalist (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Gene Anthony Ray, American actor (b. 1962)
- 2004 - Margaret Hassan, Irish-born aid worker (b. 1945)

Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - Equorum Probatio
- India - Birthday of Jawaharlal Nehru: Children's day
- World Diabetes Day
- United States - [http://www.cbcbooks.org/cbw/ National Children's Book Week] begins

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/14 BBC: On This Day] ---- November 13 - November 15 - October 14 - December 14 -- listing of all days ko:11월 14일 ms:14 November ja:11月14日 simple:November 14 th:14 พฤศจิกายน

2001

:This article is about the year 2001. For information on the movie, see 2001: A Space Odyssey. For the Dr. Dre album, see 2001. 2001 (MMI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. By strict interpretation of the Gregorian Calendar, 2001 is also the first year of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium. Popular culture, however, often views the year 2000 as holding this distinction. 2001 is also the year which marks:
- Australia's Centenary of Federation
- The International Year of the Volunteer
- The United Nations Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations See also Wikipedia's almanac of events for this year.

Events

January

January
- January 1 - A black monolith measuring approximately nine feet tall appears in Seattle's Magnuson Park, placed by an anonymous artist in reference to the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey.
- January 6 - The U.S. Congress, presided over by Vice President Al Gore as President of the Senate, certifies George W. Bush's Electoral College victory and thus as the winner of 2000 presidential election.
- January 11 - The Federal Trade Commission approved the merger of AOL and Time Warner to form AOL Time Warner.
- January 13 - Major earthquake with a magnitude of 7.6 hits all El Salvador.
- January 15 - Wikipedia, a Wiki free content encyclopedia, goes online (Wikipedia Day).
- January 20 - George W. Bush succeeds Bill Clinton as President of the United States after prevailing over Al Gore in the disputed U.S. presidential election, 2000.
- January 22 - Four of the "Texas 7" are caught at a convenience store in Woodland Park, Colorado and a fifth killed himself inside a motor home.
- January 23-25 - UN war crimes prosecutor Del Ponte demands that Serbia hand over Slobodan Milošević.
- January 24 - The last two of the "Texas 7" are taken into custody in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
- January 24 - Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter Mandelson resigns from the British cabinet for the second time.
- January 26 - A 50-year-old DC-3 crashes near Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela killing 24.
- January 26 - An earthquake hits Gujarat, India. More than 20,000 deaths and most of the historical city is destroyed.
- January 29 - Thousands of student protesters in Indonesia storm parliament and demand that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals.
- January 31 - The Scottish Court in the Netherlands convicts a Libyan and acquits another for their part in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 which crashed in Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988.

February

February hits the UK.]]
- February - Iraq disarmament crisis: British and U.S. forces carry out bombing raids attempting to disable Iraq's air defense network.
- February 5 - Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman announce that they have separated
- February 6 - Likud Party leader Ariel Sharon wins election as Prime Minister of Israel
- February 9 - American submarine USS Greeneville accidentally strikes and sinks Japanese fishing vessel Ehime-Maru.
- February 12 - NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft touchdown in the "saddle" region of 433 Eros becoming the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid.
- February 13 - An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.6 hits El Salvador, killing at least 400
- February 16 - Baghdad suburb bombed by US and UK war planes, 3 people killed.
- February 18 - NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt is killed on the last lap of the Daytona 500 while blocking for his DEI cars driven by his son, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and Michael Waltrip, who won the race.
- February 19 - A Oklahoma City bombing museum is dedicated at the Oklahoma City National Memorial.
- February 20 - FBI agent Robert Hanssen is arrested and charged with spying for Russia for 15 years.
- February 20 - 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis begins.
- February 24-27 - Patient Tony Collins spends 77 hours and 30 minutes on a hospital trolley outside the toilets in the Princess Margaret Hospital, Swindon, United Kingdom
- February 28 - An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.9 hits the Nisqually Valley area of Washington. There was one reported death, an elderly woman who suffered a heart attack.
- February 28 - The Selby rail crash kills ten people.

March

- March 23 - Russian space stations Mir re-enters the atmosphere near Nadi, Fiji, and falls into the Pacific Ocean
- March 24 - Apple Computer's Mac OS X v10.0 is released.
- March 26 - WCW is bought out by WWE.
- March 28 - Tornado [http://www.dallassky.com/fwtornado.htm Dallas Skys] rips through downtown Fort Worth killing five and causing more than 500 million dollars in property damage.
- March 31 - Invader Zim premieres on Nickelodeon.

April

- April 1 - An EP-3E American spyplane collides with a Chinese fighter jet and is forced to make an emergency landing in Hainan, China. The U.S. crew was detained for 10 days and the F-8 Chinese pilot, Wang Wei, went missing and presumed dead.
- April 1 - Former president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Slobodan Milošević surrenders to police special forces, to be tried on charges of war crimes.
- April 1 - In the Netherlands, the Act on the Opening up of Marriage goes into effect. The Act allows same-sex couples to legally marry for the first time in the world.
- April 27 - Impostor Christopher Rocancourt arrested in Oak Bay, British Columbia
- April 29 - Census of population in the United Kingdom.

May

- May 1 - The Japanese cities of Urawa, Omiya, and Yono merge to form the city of Saitama.
- May 1 - Police declare the disappearance of Chandra Levy. Her remains were discovered a year later.
- May 7 - In Banja Luka, the second largest city in Bosnia, an attempt is made to reconstruct the Ferhadija mosque. However, the ceremony resulted in mass riots by Serb nationalists that beat and stone three hundred elderly Bosnian Muslims.
- May 10 - In Ghana, a stampede at a soccer game kills over 120.
- May 11 - Comedy sci-fi author Douglas Adams of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy fame, dies from a heart attack, aged 49.
- May 16 - John Prescott, the Deputy Prime Minister of United Kingdom, assaults Craig Evans at an election rally in Rhyll, North Wales.
- May 22 - Large trans-Neptunian object 28978 Ixion found during the Deep Ecliptic Survey.
- May 22 and May 23 - Official Opening of the Bahá'í Terraces on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel; site of the Shrine of the Báb and the Bahá'í World Centre.
- May 24 - Sherpa Temba Tsheri becomes the youngest person to conquer Mount Everest.

June

- June 1 - Crown Prince Dipendra of Nepal kills his father, the king, his mother and other members of the royal family with an assault rifle and then shoots himself. He dies June 4. King Gyanendra acceeds to the throne
- June 5-June 9 - Houston, Texas is devastated by flooding when Tropical Storm Allison produces 36 inches (900 mm) of rain. Particularly hard hit are the downtown area and the Texas Medical Center, which lost years of research and data and thousands of lab animals. Twenty-two people die; damage exceeds five billion American dollars.
- June 5 - Senator Jim Jeffords leaves the Republican party, an act which changes control of the United States Senate from the Republican party to the Democratic party
- June 7 - Tony Blair's Labour Party elected for second term in UK General Election
- June 8 - Popular editorial site suck.com, one of the first original content sites on the internet, publishes its final article, "Gone Fishin'."
- June 9 - The Colorado Avalanche win their second Stanley Cup Championship 3-1 in Game 7 over the New Jersey Devils at the Pepsi Center in Denver. This series was highly anticipated as longtime Boston Bruins star traded to become a [Colorado Avalanche|Colorado]] defenseman Ray Bourque wins the Stanley Cup for the first time in his illustrious 22 year NHL career, a few days after the team's victory, Bourque announces his retirement.
- June 11 - The United States executes Timothy James McVeigh for the Oklahoma City Bombing.
- June 19 - 23 people killed and 11 wounded by an American missile hitting a soccer field in northern Iraq, Tel Afr County.
- June 20 - Pervez Musharraf becomes President of Pakistan after the resignation of Rafiq Tarar.
- June 20 - Andrea Yates drowns her children in a bathtub and confesses to her crime. She would get life in prison for it.
- June 21 - Total solar eclipse

July

July.]]
- July 2 - World's first self-contained artificial heart implanted in Robert Tools.
- July 3 - A Vladivostokavia Tupolev Tu-154 jetliner crashes on approach to landing at Irkutsk, Russia killing 145
- July 16 - The FBI arrests Dmitry Sklyarov at a convention in Las Vegas for violating a provision of the DMCA.
- July 18 - In Baltimore, Maryland, a 60-car train derailment occurs in a tunnel sparking a fire that will last days and virtually shut down downtown Baltimore
- July 19 - UK politician and novelist Jeffrey Archer, sentenced to four years in prison for perjury and perverting the course of justice.
- July 20 - Vanessa Legget is found in contempt by a Federal Court for refusing to release notes made for her book on the Doris Angleton murder.
- July 20-22 - The 27th G8 summit takes place in Genoa, Italy. Massive demonstrations against the meeting by anti-globalisation groups. One demonstrator, Carlo Giuliani, is shot dead by a carabiniere and several others are badly injured during an attack by the police on a school which the protesters were using as their headquarters.
- July 24 - Tamil Tigers attack Bandaranaika International Airport in Sri Lanka, causing estimated $500 million of damages
- July 28 - Alejandro Toledo is sworn as the new president of Peru, eight months after the vote of no-confidence of former President Alberto Fujimori.

August

- August 1 - Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice Roy Moore has a 2 1/2 ton monument of the Ten Commandments surreptitiously installed in the rotunda of the judiciary building. He would later be sued to have it removed. Later, he would be removed from office.
- August 2 - Robert Mueller confirmed as the new FBI director.
- August 6 - : George W. Bush is informed in his President's Daily Brief that Osama bin Laden is determined to strike targets within the United States and that the FBI believed activity consistent with preparations for hijacking US airplanes was underway.
- August 9 - US President George W. Bush announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic stem cells.
- August 9 - In the Comoros, "military committee" of major Mohamad Bacar seizes power in the island of Anjouan, that had declared independence. They plan to rejoin the Comoros

September

- September 1 - Fundation of the Free State Project.
- September 4 - Google Inc. is awarded a patent, number 6,285,999, for the PageRank search algorithm used in the Google search engine
- September 5 - Peru's attorney general files homicide charges against ex-President Alberto Fujimori
- September 5 - Young Left formed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- September 6 - United States v. Microsoft: The United States Justice Department announces that it was no longer seeking to break-up software maker Microsoft and will instead seek a lesser antitrust penalty
- September 9 - Suicide bomber wounds Ahmed Shah Massoud, military commander of Northern Alliance in Afghanistan. He dies September 14
- September 10 - Norwegian parliamentary election, 2001
- September 11 - Almost 3,000 killed in the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack on the World Trade Center in New York City, The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and rural Shanksville, Pennsylvania.
- September 17 - The New York Stock Exchange reopens following the terrorist attacks in New York.
- September 18 - The 2001 anthrax attacks commence as anthrax letters are mailed from Princeton, New Jersey to ABC News, CBS News, NBC News, the New York Post, and the National Enquirer.

October

- October 2 - Bankruptcy of Swissair.
- October 4 - First case of anthrax in the US (attack) is announced by federal officials.
- October 4 - Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 crashes over the Black Sea en route from Tel Aviv Israel to Novosibirsk Russia - 78 dead.
- October 5 - Tom Ridge resigns as Governor of Pennsylvania to become the first director of the newly created United States Office of Homeland Security.
- October 7 - The American attack on Afghanistan begins. The United Kingdom participates.
- October 8 - MD-87 of SAS collides first with a private plane and then a building in Milano airport - 100 dead
- October 8 - The first comic of Tsunami Channel goes online. It would later go on to be the #1 comic of Keenspace (in terms of page views) until moving to its own server.
- October 9 - The 2001 anthrax attacks continue as anthrax letters are mailed from Princeton, New Jersey to Senators Tom Daschle of South Dakota and Patrick Leahy of Vermont.
- October 10 - War on Terrorism: US President George W. Bush presents a list of 22 most wanted terrorists
- October 12 - War on Terrorism: Prompted by a request by US President George W. Bush, an episode of America's Most Wanted aired featuring 22 most wanted terrorists
- October 15 - NASA's Galileo spacecraft passes within 112 miles of Jupiter's moon Io
- October 19 - SIEV-X sinks en route to Christmas Island
- October 20 - The Concert for New York City, "a celebration of the strength, resilience, and pride of New York and America" is held featuring performances by The Who, Paul McCartney, David Bowie, Billy Joel, Destiny's Child, Eric Clapton, Adam Sandler, Bon Jovi, Elton John and many more.
- October 23 - Apple Computer releases the now famous iPod.
- October 23 - Principal Financial Group files its initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange.
- October 25 - Microsoft releases Windows XP

November

- November - The Doha Declaration relaxes the grip of international intellectual property law by a bit.
- November 4 - Hurricane Michelle hits Cuba destroying crops and thousands of homes.
- November 4 - The Police Service of Northern Ireland is established, replacing the discredited RUC.
- November 7 - Bankruptcy of Belgium's SABENA Airlines.
- November 7 - The super-sonic commercial aircraft Concorde resumes flying after a 15-month break.
- November 10 - China is admitted to the World Trade Organization after 15 years of negotiations.
- November 10 - John Howard, prime minister of Australia, is elected to a third term.
- November 11 - Mark McGwire announces his retirement from professional baseball.
- November 12 - In New York City, American Airlines Flight 587 crashes minutes after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport, killing all 260 on-board
- November 12 - 2001 Attack on Afghanistan: Taliban forces abandon Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, ahead of advancing Northern Alliance troops (Northern Alliance fighters took Kabul on November 14)
- November 13 - Doha Round: The World Trade Organization ends a four-day ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar.
- November 13 - Symbionese Liberation Army member Kathleen Soliah (Sara Jane Olsen) withdraws her previous guilty plea.
- November 13 - War on Terrorism: In the first such act since World War II, US President George W. Bush signs an executive order allowing military tribunals against any foreigners suspected of having connections to terrorist acts or planned acts on the United States
- November 22 - Pope John Paul II sends the first papal email from a laptop in his office.
- November 30 - Beatle George Harrison dies after a long battle with cancer

December

- December 2 - Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection five days after Dynegy canceled a US$8.4 billion buyout bid. At the time this was the largest bankruptcy in the history of the United States.
- December 3 - Officials announce that one of the Taliban prisoners captured after the prison uprising at Mazar-e Sharif is John Walker Lindh, an American citizen.
- December 11 - The United States government indicts Zacarias Moussaoui for involvement in the attacks on September 11th.
- December 13 - The Indian Parliament is attacked by terrorists, killing 14 people. This brings India and Pakistan to the brink of war.
- December 13 - U.S. President George W. Bush announces the United States' withdrawal from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
- December 14 - Annular solar eclipse
- December 19 - A new world-record high barometric pressure of 1085.6 hPa (32.06 inHg) was set at Tosontsengel, Hövsgöl Aymag, Mongolia.
- December 19 - Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring was released into theaters.
- December 21 - Japanese television performer Masashi Tashiro got No. 1 temporarily in the Internet vote of Time's Person of the Year.
- December 22 - Hamid Karzai is sworn in as head of the interim government in Afghanistan.
- December 22 - A Paris-Miami flight is diverted to Boston after passenger Richard Reid attempts to light his shoe, filled with explosives, on fire.
- December 27 - The People's Republic of China is granted permanent normal trade status with the United States.
- December 27 - Typhoon Vamei forms within 1.5 degrees of the equator. No other tropical cyclone in recorded history has come as close to the equator.

Births

- June 13 - Scott & Zachary Benes, American actors

Deaths

For more deaths see: Deaths in 2001

January-February

- January 1 - Ray Walston, American actor (b. 1914)
- January 2 - Teri Diver, American actress (b. 1971)
- January 3 - José Greco, Italian-born flamenco dancer (b. 1918)
- January 5 - Nancy Parsons, American actress (b. 1942)
- January 12 - William Hewlett, American businessman (b. 1913)
- January 28 - Curt Blefary, baseball player (b. 1943)
- January 30, Jean-Pierre Aumont, French actor (b. 1911)
- January 30 - Johnnie Johnson, English pilot (b. 1915)
- January 31, Gordon R. Dickson, Canadian writer (b. 1923)
- February 4 - Iannis Xenakis, Greek composer (b. 1922)
- February 7 - Dale Evans, American actress and singer (b. 1912)
- February 7 - Anne Morrow Lindbergh, American author and aviator (b. 1906)
- February 9 - Herbert Simon, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916)
- February 12 - Kristina Söderbaum, German actress and photographer (b. 1912)
- February 16 - Bob Buhl, baseball player (b. 1928)
- February 18 - Balthus, French painter (b. 1908)
- February 18 - Dale Earnhardt, American race car driver (b. 1951)
- February 19 - Priscilla Davis, American socialite (b. 1942)
- February 19 - Stanley Kramer, American film director (b. 1913)
- February 19 - Charles Trenet, French singer (b. 1913)
- February 24 - Claude Elwood Shannon, American mathematician (b. 1916)
- February 25 - Sir Donald Bradman, Australian cricketer (b. 1908)

March-April

- March 4 - Glenn Hughes, American singer (b. 1950)
- March 4 - Harold Stassen, American politician (b. 1907)
- March 11 - Russ Haas, American professional wrestler (b. 1974)
- March 12 - Morton Downey Jr., American television personality (b. 1933)
- March 12 - Robert Ludlum, American author (b. 1927)
- March 12 - Ann Sothern, American actress (b. 1909)
- March 18 - John Phillips, American singer (b. 1935)
- March 21 - Norma Macmillan, Canadian voice actress (b. 1921)
- March 22 - William Hanna, American animation studio executive
- March 31 - Clifford Shull, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915)
- April 7 - David Graf, American actor (b. 1950)
- April 7 - Beatrice Straight, American actress (b. 1914)
- April 10 - Willie Stargell - American baseball player (b. 1940)
- April 11 - Harry Secombe, Welsh entertainer (b. 1921)
- April 12 - Harvey Ball, American designer (b. 1921)
- April 14 - Hiroshi Teshigahara, Japanese director (b. 1927)
- April 15 - Joey Ramone (Jeffrey Hyman), American musician and singer (The Ramones) (b. 1951)
- April 20 - Giuseppe Sinopoli, Italian conductor and composer (b. 1946)

May-June

- May 5 - Clifton Hillegass, American author and creator of Cliff Notes (b. 1918)
- May 9 - James E. Myers, American songwriter (b. 1919)
- May 11 - Douglas Adams, English author (heart attack) (b. 1952)
- May 12 - Perry Como, American singer (b. 1912)
- May 13 - R.K. Narayan, Indian novelist (b. 1906)
- May 20 - Renato Carosone, Italian musician and singer (b. 1920)
- May 27 - Ramon Bieri, American actor (b. 1929)
- May 28 - Francisco Varela, Chilean biologist and philosopher (b. 1946)
- June 1 - Hank Ketcham, American cartoonist (b. 1920)
- June 1 - Queen Aiswarya of Nepal (assassinated (b. 1949)
- June 1 - King Birendra of Nepal (assassinated) (b. 1945)
- June 2 - Imogene Coca, American actress (b. 1908)
- June 2 - Joey Maxim, American boxer (b. 1922)
- June 3 - Anthony Quinn, Mexican actor (b. 1915)
- June 4 - Prince Dipendra of Nepal (b. 1971)
- June 4 - John Hartford, American musician and composer (b. 1937)
- June 10 - Princess Leila of Iran (b. 1970)
- June 11 - Timothy McVeigh, American terrorist (executed) (b. 1968)
- June 17 - Donald J. Cram, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1919)
- June 21 - John Lee Hooker, American musician (b. 1917)
- June 21 - Carroll O'Connor, American actor (b. 1924)
- June 26 - Peter von Zahn, German journalist (b. 1913)
- June 27 - Tove Jansson, Finnish author (b. 1914)
- June 27 - Jack Lemmon, American actor and director (b. 1925)
- June 28 - Mortimer Adler, American philosopher (b. 1902)
- June 28 - Joan Sims, British actress (b. 1930)
- June 30 - Chet Atkins, American musician (b. 1924)

July-August

- July 1 - Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1922)
- July 5 - Hannelore Kohl, wife of chancellor of Germany Helmut Kohl (suicide) (b. 1933)
- July 11 - Herman Brood, Dutch musician and painter (suicide) (b. 1946)
- July 18 - Fabio Taglioni, Italian automotive engineer (b. 1920)
- July 20 - Milt Gabler, American record producer (b. 1911)
- July 27 - Leon Wilkeson, American musician (b. 1952)
- July 29 - Edward Gierek, Polish politician (b. 1913)
- July 29 - Wau Holland, German hacker (b. 1951)
- August 1 - Poul Anderson, American author (b. 1926)
- August 1 - Korey Stringer, American football player (b. 1974)
- August 3 - Christopher Hewett, British actor (b. 1922)
- August 6 - Jorge Amado, Brazilian writer (b. 1912)
- August 15 - Richard Chelimo, Kenyan athlete (b. 1972)
- August 20 - Fred Hoyle, British astronomer and science fiction writer (b. 1915)
- August 25 - Aaliyah, American singer and actress (plane crash) (b. 1979)

September-October

- September 2 - Christiaan Barnard, South African heart surgeon (b. 1922)
- September 3 - Pauline Kael, American film critic (b. 1919)
- September 3 - Thuy Trang, Vietnamese-born actress (b. 1973)
- September 7 - Spede Pasanen, Finnish television personality (b. 1930)
- September 9 - Ahmed Shah Massoud, Afghani military commander (b. 1953)
- September 11 - Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks
- September 11 - Barbara K. Olson, American television commentator (b. 1955)
- Council Bluffs is a city located in Pottawattamie County, Iowa. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 58,268. It is often considered a suburb of Omaha, Nebraska, which is just across the Missouri River, and was founded by real estate speculators from Council Bluffs. What is now Council Bluffs was first settled by Billy Caldwell's Pottawatomi during the 1830's. During the mid-1840's the town became Kanesville, the main outfitting point for the Mormon emigration to Utah. After the Mormons left in 1852 the town was renamed Council Bluffs. Now home to three casinos — Ameristar Casino Hotel, Bluffs Run Casino, and Harrah's Council Bluffs Casino & Hotel — many Omahans travel to Council Bluffs for gambling, which is more loosely regulated in Iowa than in Nebraska. During the middle 19th century, the city was, along with Omaha, one of the major "jumping off" points for the Emigrant Trail. By 1852, over half the emigrants on the Oregon Trail passed through Council Bluffs. By 1930 the city was the country's fifth largest rail center. Council Bluffs is home to the Squirrel Cage Jail, which was built in 1885 and is one of three remaining examples of a "lazy Susan" or rotary Jail. A rotary jail contains pie-shaped cells located on a turntable. To access an individual cell, the jailor turned a crank, which rotated the cylinder of cells until the desired cell lined up with a fixed opening located on each floor. According to the Historical Society of Pottawattamie County, the Squirrel Cage Jail is the only three-story rotary jail ever built. Council Bluffs is also home to the Iowa School for the Deaf and Iowa Western Community College. The black squirrel is common in the city and was first reported by John James Audubon in 1843 and living along the Missouri River from Council Bluffs south to the Blacksnake Hills (now St. Joseph, MO)

Geography

Council Bluffs is located at 41°15'13" North, 95°51'45" West (41.253698, -95.862388). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 102.7 km² (39.7 mi²). 96.8 km² (37.4 mi²) of it is land and 5.9 km² (2.3 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 5.70% water, most of this being Lake Manawa. Council Bluffs is part of a unique topographic region composed of loess hills and prairie. Excellent vistas can be had from Fairmont Park, the Lincoln Monument, Kirn Park, and the Lewis and Clark Monument. North Broadway follows Indian Creek for about a mile, in an area that is lushly landscaped.

Demographics

prairie As of the census of 2000, there are 58,268 people, 22,889 households, and 15,083 families residing in the city. The population density is 601.9/km² (1,558.7/mi²). There are 24,340 housing units at an average density of 251.4/km² (651.1/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 94.76% White, 1.05% Black or African American, 0.45% Native American, 0.59% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.81% from other races, and 1.31% from two or more races. 4.45% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. Latino There are 22,889 households out of which 31.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% are married couples living together, 14.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.1% are non-families. 27.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.49 and the average family size is 3.03. Age/gender spread: 26.0% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 35 years. For every 100 females there are 93.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $36,221, and the median income for a family is $42,715. Males have a median income of $30,828 versus $23,476 for females. The per capita income for the city is $18,143. 10.3% of the population and 8.2% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 14.0% of those under the age of 18 and 6.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links

- [http://www.thehistoricalsociety.org/ The Historical Society of Pottawattamie County] Category:Cities in Iowa Category:Pottawattamie County, Iowa Category:Churches in Council Bluffs,Iowa

B.A.

A Bachelor of Arts (B.A. or A.B., from the Latin Artium Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course or program in the arts and/or sciences.

Duration

A BA program generally lasts three years in the United Kingdom (except Scotland), New Zealand and Australia or four years in the United States. BA programs are increasingly taking about five (rather than four) years to complete in the USA because a student must take more than 12 credit hours a semester (12 hours is considered full-time) in order to complete it in 4 years; college students are increasingly choosing to work either full or part-time and stretch out their college education out a bit more. In Canada, most BA programs last four years, although Quebec universities offer a three-year degree after graduation from a provincial CEGEP programme. Some Canadian universities outside of Quebec offer three-year BA degrees, particularly in British Columbia, Alberta, and Ontario, but these degrees are seen by prospective employers and graduate schools as being less prestigious than their four-year (honours degree) counterparts.

Coursework

In the United States and Canada, a Bachelor of Arts degree usually requires a student to take a majority of their courses (usually 1/2 or 3/4) in the arts, namely social sciences, humanities, music, or fine arts. The curriculum of a traditional Bachelor of Arts degree is centered around providing a well-rounded, liberal arts education. In the United States, colleges and universities often award Bachelor of Arts degrees even to those who pursue a majority of their coursework (i.e., major) in traditional, "hard" science fields such as biology and chemistry. This is particularly common at some prestigious American universities, such as Princeton University, Columbia University, Harvard University, and liberal arts colleges. In the UK, usage varies: most universities maintain an Arts/Science distinction but some, e.g. Oxford and Cambridge traditionally awarded BAs (which automatically leads to an MA after 4 years) to undergraduates regardless of subject. Most of the Ancient universities of Scotland award an MA to arts undergraduates but a BSc to science undergraduates. A Bachelor of Arts receives the designation BA or AB for a major/pass degree and BA(Hons) or AB(Hon) for an honours degree.

Difference between the BA and BS

The Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BS or BSc) are very similar in some countries, in that they are the most common of undergraduate degrees. In the United States and Canada, both degrees consist of a general education component (usually requiring matriculants to take courses in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and mathematics). They typically also require students to declare a major, take a certain number of elective courses, and sometimes have basic skills components (such as writing exams or computer proficiency exams). However, in countries that do not require a general education component - such as Australia - the subjects studied are likely to be almost completely different in each degree. The BS typically requires more courses in the major than the BA. Also, the BS tends to be awarded significantly more often in the natural sciences than in the humanities. Finally, the BA is used four times as often by so-called "arts and sciences colleges" than professional/technical schools. Beyond these differences, the variation between the BA and the BS is dependent on the policies of the individual colleges and universities.

EU harmonisation

European Union members states' ministers of education have agreed on a harmonisation of the education cycles within the EU. One part of this agreement is the division into an undergraduate and a graduate level of higher education. Following this so-called "Bologna/Berlin declaration" (see Bologna process for more information), universities in the EU are now in the process of reorganising their courses in order to offer Bachelor and Master degrees. Many universities have already changed to the bachelor/master model, and the others soon will. Subjects of the humanities and social studies can be completed with a BA at an increasing number of universities in Germany already, for example. This means EU countries are giving up their traditional magister or diploma courses to make switching and comparing universities easier. The reason for this rationalisation is because the English magister ("master") and baccalaureus ("bachelor") classifications developed separately from most European countries. For example the baccalaureus is gained at the end of secondary education in some countries. For a fuller explanation of why this is so see Degrees of Oxford University. The BA is supposed to last three/four years, the MA one/two years, but altogether no longer than five years.

Doctor of Philosophy

Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D. (an abbreviation for the Latin "Philosophiæ Doctor"; or alternatively Doctor philosophiæ, D.Phil.), was originally a degree granted by a university to a learned individual who had achieved the approval of his peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy. The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge. The degree was popularised in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. From here it spread to the U.S., arriving at Yale University in 1861, and then to the UK in 1921. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). However some UK universities such as Oxford and Sussex retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research degrees. Some ability to carry out original research must be documented by producing a dissertation or thesis of book length. The degree is often a prerequisite for permanent employment as a university lecturer or as a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis. In others such as engineering or geology, a doctoral degree is considered desirable but not essential for employment.

Time

The successful completion of a doctoral program typically takes 3 to 7.5 years depending upon the specific field of study, prior experience and/or training, and the progress made by the doctoral candidate in his or her studies. In some fields such as some specific branches of physics, a doctoral degree is practically essential for employment. In some sciences, a newly-graduated doctoral student is unlikely to find work as a tenure-track professor and must undertake one or a series of postdoctorate positions. The predicted age of the student upon graduation is also considered before admission to a PhD program in the US in many universities in conjunction with the assumption of the time needed to finish the PhD. It is rare for students to be admitted to a PhD program in engineering, mathematics, or in the sciences in the US, if they will be 42 years of age or older upon graduation. The average length of time needed by many engineering students is 6 to 7.5 years in many US colleges within major universities. The thought is that graduates older than 42 years upon graduation will not produce the body of work over their lifetime to be worth the time and effort within the university to justify the student's admission to the PhD program.

Assessment

The doctoral candidate's progress is usually overseen by a thesis advisor, or supervisor, who chairs a thesis committee which supervises the doctoral candidate. In the US, doctoral programs typically require a series of required and optional courses at the beginning of the program, but education in the latter portion of the program tends to consist of informal discussions with the thesis advisor and individual research by the student. Many US universities separate the program into two portions (doctoral student and doctoral candidate) with a required doctoral examination before allowing a student to be formally admitted to a doctoral program. Alternatively, a student may be admitted to the program, but is still required to complete a comprehensive examination on his or her field before progressing to the dissertation state (see the discussion of ABD, below).

Funding

The funding of students varies from field to field, and many graduate students in the sciences and engineering work as teaching assistants or research assistants while they are doctoral students. In Australia, PhD students are quite often offered a scholarship to study their PhD. The most common of these is the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) scholarship, which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AUD$19,000 a year (tax free). Most universities also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but is funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly harder to obtain. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian students also have other sources of funding in their PhD. These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AUD$10,000 more than the usual APA rate.

Oral defense

In some countries, a Ph.D. candidate is required to present an oral defense of his thesis, known in the UK as a viva (short for viva voce, Latin for "by live voice") before a committee. In France, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland, before a degree can be granted, the dissertation has to be defended in what is, using a medieval term, called a disputation: an expert in the field, often from another university, is appointed who will present the dissertation, subject it to a critical examination and discuss it with the author. In the context of the disputation, the critical examiner is termed the opponent, and the author of the dissertation the respondent. The dissertation has to be generally available in its final or at least in a preliminary published form a few weeks before the disputation, which is open to the public; after the opponent is finished, anyone present is allowed to ask critical questions (anyone who does is called an "opponent ex auditorio"—an opponent from the auditorium). The final grade is decided after the disputation in a meeting between the opponent and a grading committee of three or (sometimes) four people. In theory, also the points raised by oppenenti ex auditorio affect the grade. It has happened, that such opponent has caused the committee not to pass the respondent, although this would be extremely extraordinary nowadays. In the United States a final oral defense before one's dissertation committee is required although it is rare that at this stage the thesis is not accepted. Nonetheless, there are typically several candidates per decade in each college of each major US university who somehow do fail to defend successfully. Most who fail do not complete the process at a subsequent defense. It is a largely unwritten rule in the US that unqualified candidates are eliminated during the coursework or dissertation research phases, and are never permitted to defend, hence the rarity of failing to pass the final defense in most cases. Minor edits are often (most times) required during the defense by committee members, and must be made prior to the final signing of the committee's recommendation paperwork by all committee members. At the end of the defense, the candidate is excused from the room, and the committee votes in secret whether to grant the degree. Upon successfully voting in the affirmative unanimously, the committee then calls the candidate back in to the room by addressing him or her using the honorific Dr. (with their last name) if successful, or Mr. or Ms. (with their last name) if unsuccessful. Technically, the candidate becomes a Doctor of Philosophy at the instant that all committee members vote in the affirmative. The rare case of not successfully defending is also true in the Netherlands, where the oral defense ("promotie") typically happens after the thesis has already been approved by examiners. The oral defense is ended after a preset amount of time by the University-appointed 'pedel' or custos who is in charge of the protocol and will end the dissertation with the words "Hora est!" (latin for it is time or the hour has come). In contrast, viva voces in British universities are by no means a rubber stamp. Whilst many (perhaps most) theses are passed with some minor corrections or revisions required by the examiners, very few are passed with no corrections whatsoever, and indeed a pass-without-correction is considered a particular honour. Moreover, it is not uncommon for British theses to be failed, as well — in which case, either major re-writes are required, followed by a new viva, or else the thesis may be awarded the lesser degree of M.Phil (Master of Philosophy) instead.

Comparative value

A Ph.D. does not confer commensurate advantage in every sphere. For example, many commercial organizations regard a professional Master's degree, such as an MBA, or professional designation, such as CPA, as the highest level of education that is desirable. It is not uncommon in engineering fields in the US for individuals to omit any mention of an earned Ph.D. in their resume when job hunting, to avoid the stigma of being considered all book learning bound, and unable to accomplish practical engineering tasks successfully. Traditional views of the value of academic study in commerce are changing but scepticism about the commercial value of a Ph.D. prevails. Medical schools may offer research Ph.D. degrees as part of their M.D. programs, although an M.D. by itself is frequently enough to teach medicine.

Criticism

The Ph.D. is often the topic of scholarly debate and criticism, given its almost exclusive concern with research and publication to the alleged neglect of numerous other faculty responsibilities that include teaching, collegial evaluation, collective and individual curricular planning, etc. Solutions have met with varying degrees of success. In the 1960s, the prestigious Carnegie Foundation helped promote and establish the Doctor of Arts degree as an alternative to the Ph.D. The D.A. degree, with its focus on content specialty, curriculum design, and pedagogy, was designed to help prepare expert teachers in various fields. Its well-defined disciplinary focus makes it different from the Ed.D. (Doctor of Education) while still embracing the Ed.D.'s concern for issues in education. The D.A. continues to be offered in many universities across the United States and in other countries, though a few D.A. programs have since been converted to the Ph.D. model. Still, the D.A. has many steadfast supporters. Other solutions include a re-thinking of the Ph.D. in order to address its perceived shortcomings.

Etymology

There are many other doctoral degrees with different designations, e.g. D.A. (Doctor of Arts), D.M.A. (Doctor of Musical Arts), Ed.D. (Doctor of Education), Th.D. (Doctor of Theology), etc. Johns Hopkins University was the first university in the United States to confer doctoral degrees. First Ph.D. in Business was granted by the University of Chicago in 1920s. In the United Kingdom, Ph.D.s are distinguishable from higher doctorates (such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which are issued by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and publication). In German speaking countries and most eastern European countries, the corresponding degree is simply called "Doctor" and is further distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." - doctor medicinæ - which is not equal to a Ph.D., "Dr.rer.nat - doctor rerum naturalium (Doctor of Science), "Dr.phil." - doctor philosophiæ. For a full list of these titles, see the German entry for Doktor). While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree, and even often (mis)understood to be synonymous with the term “doctorate,” the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) recognize numerous doctoral degrees as equivalent, and do not discriminate between them. Sometimes a university grants an honorary Ph.D. or D.A., or other doctoral degree, with the added designation of honoris causa (Latin for for the sake of honor), or Dr.h.c. In recent years, the term Ph.D. (ABD), an abbreviation for "All But Dissertation", has also come into usage. Seen primarily in the US where significant prerequisite coursework is often a part of the doctoral program, the Ph.D. (ABD) is not an official degree. As an unofficial designation, however, it serves to note when a Ph.D. student has completed all graduate coursework for the doctorate, has passed the cumulative and/or qualifying examinations, has been formally advanced to final candidacy and may have conducted original research, but has not submitted a dissertation to satisfy the final requirement for formal conferral of the Ph.D. degree. In some schools a student can write an additional thesis at this point and receive a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) degree; in others, the MPhil (sometimes Candidate in Philosophy, CPhil) is conferred on an ABD student who has been advanced to candicacy for the Ph.D., having completed all requirements except the doctoral thesis or dissertation.

Bibliography

- Estelle M Phillips and Derek.S. Pugh How to Get a PhD: A Handbook for Students and Their Supervisors ISBN 033520550X,
- MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. Secrets of Their Success (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002) Philosophy, Doctor of ja:Ph.D.

Lawrence College

Lawrence University, located in Appleton, Wisconsin, is a private undergraduate college founded in 1847. The first classes were held on November 12, 1849. Lawrence was the second college in the United States to be founded coeducational. Lawrence's first president, William Harkness Sampson founded the school with Henry R. Colman, using $10,000 provided by famed philanthropist Amos Adams Lawrence, and matched by the Methodist church. Both founders were ordained Methodist ministers, although Lawrence was Episcopalian. Originally the school was named Lawrence Institute, documented in its 1847 charter from the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature. Lawrence's first period of major growth came during the tenure of alumnus Samuel G. Plantz as president. From 1894 until 1924, Plantz presided over the school and led its student body to grow from 200 to 800. From 1913 until 1964, the school was named Lawrence College, to emphasize its small size and liberal arts education focus. The name was changed back to Lawrence University when it joined with Milwaukee-Downer College for Women, symbolizing the two schools united as one. Initially, the university designated two entities: Lawrence College for Men and Downer College for Women. This separation has not lasted in any material form, though degrees are still conferred "on the recommendation of the Faculty of Lawrence and Downer Colleges" and the university by-laws still make the distinction. To this day, the traditions and heritage of Milwaukee-Downer are woven into the Appleton campus, from the grove of hawthorn trees (called Hawthornden) between Brokaw and Colman halls, to the sundial on the back of Main Hall, to the bestowing upon each class year a class color and banner. Milwaukee-Downer alumni are generous both financially and spiritually to Lawrence University, attending yearly reunions and other events there, and contributing to the school's endowment. The Lawrence Conservatory of Music was founded in 1894. The university confers a Bachelor of Music degree and also offers a five-year program leading to a Bachelor of Arts in addition to the music degree. Lawrence University is distinguished by originating the idea of freshman studies. Freshman studies at Lawrence is a mandatory two trimester class that panoptically exposes students to notable literature from many fields. President Nathan M. Pusey is credited with initiating the program in 1945, although Professor Waples chaired the Freshman Studies Committee and was responsible for actually getting the program off the ground. The program has continued to this today, despite being suspended in 1974, and has been adapted by many liberal arts colleges. Lawrence University has a 425-acre northern campus, Björklunden, in Door Couny, Wisconsin. Björklunden serves as a site for retreats, seminars, concerts, and theatrical performances. Donald and Winifred Boynton of Highland Park, Illinois, donated the property to Lawrence in 1963 Although the names are similar, Lawrence University is not related to Sarah Lawrence College or St. Lawrence University. Nor should it be confused with the University of Kansas, located in Lawrence, KS, though the university and the city take their name from the same person. Lawrence University is known by many for the Great Midwest Trivia Contest broadcast every January over the college radio station WLFM. In 2005, Lawrence University began the [http://www.lawrence.edu/dept/fellows/ Lawrence Fellows Program], selecting initially eight recent Ph.D.s to teach and research at Lawrence for a period of two to three years. The goal is to expand the program to twenty recent Ph.D.s.

Distinguished alumni

- Richard Bush, chairman and managing director of the American Institute in Taiwan
- Louis B. Butler, Jr., associate justice of the Wisconsin Supreme Court
- Dale Duesing, baritone
- James D. Ericson, chairman Northwestern Mutual
- Edna Ferber, author
- John Rankin Gamble, congressman from South Dakota
- Raymond Herzog, president and chairman of 3M
- Lorena Hickok, confidant of Eleanor Roosevelt
- Jeffrey Jones, actor
- Win Jones, watercolor painter
- Scott Klug, congressman from Wisconsin
- Harry M. Kraemer, Jr., chairman and CEO of Baxter International
- John A. Luke, Jr., CEO of MeadWestvaco.
- Bob Landis, Emmy-award winning cinematographer
- Terry Moran, chief White House correspondent for ABC News
- David Mulford, U.S. ambassador to India
- Campbell Scott, actor
- Janet Steiger, chairman of the Federal Trade Commission
- Mark Uhlemann, bass-baritone
- Josh Sawyer, video game designer at Obsidian Entertainment
- William Baird, vice-president of Weyerhaeuser

Presidents of Lawrence

- 1849-1853 William Harkness Sampson, principal
- 1853-1859 Edward Cooke, president
- 1859-1865 Russell Zelotes Mason, president
- 1865-1879 George McKendree Steele, president
- 1879-1883 Elias DeWitt Huntley, president
- 1883-1889 Bradford Paul Raymond, president
- 1889-1893 Charles Wesley Gallagher, president
- 1893-1894 L. Wesley Underwood, acting president
- 1894-1924 Samuel G. Plantz, president
- 1924-1925 Wilson Samuel Naylor,acting president
- 1925-1937 Henry Merritt Wriston, president
- 1937-1943 Thomas Nichols Barrows, president
- 1943-1944 Ralph Jerome Watts, acting president
- 1944-1953 Nathan Marsh Pusey, president
- 1954-1963 Douglas Maitland Knight, president
- 1963-1969 Curtis William Tarr, president
- 1969-1979 Thomas S. Smith, president
- 1979-2004 Richard Warch, president
- 2004-present Jill Beck, president

External links

- [http://www.lawrence.edu/ Lawrence University] Category:Universities and colleges in Wisconsin Category:Associated Colleges of the Midwest Category:Liberal arts colleges

Wesleyan University

:This article concerns Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut; there is also a Wesleyan University in the Philippines and a number of other colleges and universities whose names include Wesleyan. Wesleyan University founded in 1831, is a private, liberal arts university in Middletown, Connecticut. Founded by Methodist leaders and residents of Middletown, Wesleyan was the first university to be named after John Wesley, the founder of Methodism and it shares a common Methodist heritage with about twenty other U.S. colleges and universities also named after Wesley. With a class size of slightly over 700, Wesleyan accepts just 28% (class of 2008) of those who apply, making it one of the most selective colleges in the US (giving it a Princeton Review Admissions Selectivity Rating of 97 on a scale from 60 to 99). In 2006, it was ranked 12th among the top Liberal Arts Colleges in the country by US News. Wesleyan is well known for the diversity of its student population with students from 49 U.S. states, the District of Columbia and 45 foreign countries. 22% of the class of 2004 identified themselves as students of color. Wesleyan is famous for its activism, especially for its feminist and gay-rights organizations, and as such it was the main inspiration for the 1994 movie PCU, which satirized an exaggeratedly "Politically Correct University." It is also known for its robust film studies department.

History

Wesleyan was founded as an all-male Methodist college in 1831. In 1872 it became one of the first universities to attempt a coeducational environment, allowing a small number of female students to attend the university, a venture known as the "Wesleyan Experiment". Many of Wesleyan's male alumni believed that coeducation lowered Wesleyan's standings compared to its academic peers, so from 1912 to 1970, Wesleyan returned to being an all-male university. By the time the university began reintegrating women in 1970, many female scholars had already found their place at the all-female Connecticut College in nearby New London, founded by Wesleyan alumni in 1911. Wesleyan became fully independent of the Methodist Church in 1937, after ties to the church waned throughout the early 20th century.

Academics

Wesleyan offers Bachelor of Arts, the Master of Arts and the Ph.D. Wesleyan offers over 900 courses in 39 departments and 44 major fields of study. No minor specialisms are offered. The university is also highly supportive of interdisciplinary programs. There is also the option of custom-made majors, known as University Majors. Almost all classes at Wesleyan are small, with the most frequent class size being between 11 and 19 students. Many students also pursue double majors. Wesleyan's graduate programs are mostly limited to the sciences and mathematics, although they also offer graduate programs in Music and Ethnomusicology and in Psychology. Additionally, the Graduate Liberal Studies Program, originally started as a summer graduate program for educators, now operates year round and offers several areas of concentration. The "GLSP" leads to the degree of Master of Arts in Liberal Studies (MALS).

Departments and majors

The following is a list of departments as of 2004. Except as noted, each department also has a single corresponding major (although the official names of majors do not include the word "program" found in some department names).
- African American Studies
- American Studies Program
- Anthropology
- Archaeology Program
- Art and Art History
- Art History
- Art Studio
- Asian Languages and Literatures
- (No separate major, see East Asian Studies)
- Astronomy
- Biology
- Chemistry
- Center for the Humanities
- (No corresponding major)
- Classical Studies
- Classics
- Classical Civilization
- College of Letters
- College of Social Studies
- Dance
- Earth and Environmental Sciences
- East Asian Studies Program
- Economics
- Economics
- Mathematics-Economics
- English
- Film Studies
- German Studies
- Government
- History
- Latin American Studies Program
- Less Commonly Taught Languages
- (No corresponding major)
- Mathematics
- Mathematics
- Computer Science
- Mathematics-Economics
- Molecular Biology and Biochemistry
- Medieval Studies Program
- Music
- Neuroscience and Behavior
- Philosophy
- Physical Education
- (No corresponding major)
- Physics
- Psychology
- Religion
- Romance Languages and Literatures
- French Studies
- Italian Studies
- Romance Studies
- Spanish Literature
- Russian and East European Studies Program
- Russian Languages and Literatures
- Russian
- Science in Society Program
- Sociology
- Theater
- Women's Studies Program

Certificate programs

Wesleyan's certificate programs are "designed to bring coherence to programs of study that include courses from many departments and programs." They are:
- Certificate in Environmental Studies
- Certificate in Informatics and Modeling
- Certificate in International Relations
- Certificate in Jewish and Israel Studies

Recent Activism

2004 has seen a resurgence in activism at Wesleyan, after several years of decline. In December, over 250 students took over South College, the building housing President Douglas Bennett's office, to protest the lack of student voices in administrative decision making. The building occupation was followed by a forum the next day, in which President Bennett promised to respond to student demands in January 2005. Another recent controversy as of December 2004 is the status of the campus radio station, WESU, founded in 1939 as the second college radio station in the United States (KUOA at John Brown University in Siloam Springs, Arkansas was the first, in 1936). Since 1988, WESU's format has been entirely free-form, with DJs having complete freedom to program what they will. The university is now considering some sort of affiliation with National Public Radio, which would require a drastic change in format. As of October 2005, it appears that some sort of consensus has been reached on at least some aspects of this, with the appointment of Ben Michael as the station's general manager. Michael has volunteered at the station since 1998, and was widely perceived as the students' and station staff's "candidate" for the position. Issues relating to sex, sexuality, and gender are very prominent on campus. A student organization on sexuality defines alternative sexuality very broadly: "Why do we now use LGBTTQQFAGIPBDSM... to describe our communities? LGBTTQQFAGIPBDSM is an acronym that many people use to be inclusive of sexually dissonant identities. It includes Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Transsexual, Queer, Questioning, Flexual, Asexual, Genderqueer, Intersex, Polyamourous, BDSM (bondage/ disciple, dominance/ submission, sadism/ masochism)...", with the ellipses indicating an indefinite continuation, and that the list is not comprehensive.

Notable Alumni

Notable alumni of Wesleyan University include:

Academia

- Linda Brinen 1988 - Scientific and technical programs manager, Joint Center for Structural Genomics, Stanford University
- Gerald Holton 1941 - Professor emeritus, Harvard University, world's leading authority on life of Albert Einstein
- Beverly Daniel Tatum 1975 - President, Spelman College; author of Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?

Art

- Meredith Bergmann 1976 - Sculptor of Women's Memorial (Boston).
- Lyle Ashton Harris 1988 - Photographer, exhibited at the Whitney Museum of American Art
- Alan Shestack 1960 - Chief curator, National Gallery of Art
- Mark Steinmetz 1982 - Photographer, recipient of Guggenheim Fellowship
- Philip Trager 1956 - Photographer whose books include Villas of Palladio, Dancers, Persephone, and Changing Paris: A Tour Along the Seine

Business

- Joshua Boger 1973 - President and CEO, Vertex Pharmaceuticals
- Majora Carter 1988 - Founder and executive director, Sustainable South Bronx
- Richard Cavanagh 1968 - President and CEO, The Conference Board of New York
- Alan Dachs 1970 - President, The Fremont Group (investment arm of Bechtel Corporation); chairman of Wesleyan's board of trustees
- Ronald Daniel 1952 - Former Managing Partner, McKinsey & Company.
- Charles Exley, Jr. 1951 - Former chairman and CEO, NCR Corporation
- Houghton Freeman 1943 - Former Vice Chairman, AIG; Founder of AIU.
- Charles James 1976 - Vice president and general counsel, ChevronTexaco Corp.
- Herb Kelleher 1953 - Founder, chairman, and former president and CEO, Southwest Airlines
- Matt Kelley 1902 - Founder, president and CEO, The Mavin Foundation
- Daphne Kwok 1984 - Executive director of the Asian Pacific Institute for Congressional Studies
- Eliza Leighton 1995 - Cofounder, Stand for Children
- John Lipsky 1968 - Chief economist and managing director, JP Morgan Chase
- Robert Patricelli 1961 - President and CEO, Women's Health, USA
- Anthony Richter 1984 - director of Central Asia and Middle East Initiatives of the Open Society Institute
- Tom Rogers 1976 - Chairman and CEO, Primedia
- Jonathan I. Schwartz 1987 - President and COO, Sun Microsystems
- David Skaggs 1964 - Executive director, Aspen Institute
- Laura Walker 1979 - President and CEO, WNYC
- Jeff Weitzen 1978 - Former president and CEO, Gateway 2000
- John Woodhouse 1953 - Senior chairman, Sysco Corp.
- Walter Wriston 1941 - Retired chairman, Citicorp
- Strauss Zelnick 1979 - Founder and president, ZelnickMedia
- Ezra Zilkha 1947 - President, Zilkha and Sons
- Harold Bordwin 1982 - President, Keen Consultants LLC

Entertainment

- Miguel Arteta 1989 - Film director (Star Maps, Chuck and Buck, The Good Girl)
- John Perry Barlow 1969 - Lyricist for Grateful Dead, cofounder of the Electronic Frontier Foundation
- Michael Bay 1986 - Film director (The Rock, Armageddon, Pearl Harbor)
- William Christopher 1954 - Father John Patrick Francis Mulcahy on M
- A
- S
- H (TV series)
- Jennifer Crittenden 1992 - Writer and/or producer for Seinfeld, The Drew Carey Show, and Everybody Loves Raymond
- Ed Decter 1979 - Screenwriter: There's Something About Mary
- Dana Delany 1978 - Emmy Award-winning actress whose credits include the television shows China Beach and Presidio Med and the films Tombstone and Fly Away Home
- Akiva Goldsman 1983 - Screenwriter for The Client, A Time to Kill, and A Beautiful Mind (Best Adapted Screenplay Oscar)
- The Highwaymen (David Fisher 1962, Steve Trott '62, Chan Daniels '62 [dec.], Steve Butts '62, and Bob Burnett '62) -- folk group with #1 single ("Michael" 1961).
- Jay Hoggard 1976 - Renowned jazz musician, vibraphonist
- Dan Kapelovitz - Writer, director, producer, The Three Geniuses.
- Michael E. Knight 1980 - Actor, best known for his role as Tad Martin on All My Children
- David Kohan 1986 - Cocreator and executive producer of Will & Grace and Good Morning, Miami
- Laurence Mark 1971 - Producer of the films Jerry McGuire, As Good as It Gets, Finding Forrester
- Daisy von Scherler Mayer 1988 - Film director (Party Girl, Madeline, The Guru)
- Alix Olson 1997 - Performance artist and award-winning slam poet
- Paul Schiff 1981 - Producer of the films My Cousin Vinny and Rushmore
- Stephen Schiff 1972 - Screenwriter for Lolita, True Crime, and Unfaithful
- Stephen Trask 1989 - Composer and lyricist for the musical Hedwig and the Angry Inch
- Jon Turteltaub 1985 - Film director (Cool Runnings, Phenomenon, While You Were Sleeping, National Treasure)
- Paul Weitz 1988 - Director (with brother Chris Weitz, American Pie, About a Boy)
- Joss Whedon 1987 - Creator, producer, director, and writer for Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel, Firefly, and Serenity; screenwriter for Speed and Toy Story
- Bradley Whitford 1981 - Emmy-winning actor in television drama The West Wing
- David White 1970 - Executive director, producer, and founder of the Dance Theater Workshop
- Mike White 1992 - Screenwriter for Chuck and Buck, Orange County, and The Good Girl
- Dar Williams 1989 - Folksinger
- Christopher Wink 1983 - Founder of the Blue Man Group
- Frank Wood 1984 - Tony Award-winning actor (Side Man)
- Joanna Firestone 2009 - Famous Rapper

Law

- Russell Hardin 1964 - Attorney, Hardin, Beers, Hagstette & Davidson, and lead Houston attorney for Arthur Andersen's defense against lawsuits brought by Enron shareholders
- Hon. Terry Hatter 1954 - Federal judge, Los Angeles
- Hon. Anthony Scirica 1962 - Circuit judge, United States Court of Appeals, Third District (Philadelphia)
- Theodore Shaw 1976 - Associate director-counsel, NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund
- Hon. Stephen Trott 1962 - Federal Appellate Court judge, 9th Circuit

Literature

- Amy Bloom 1975 - Author of Come to Me, Love Invents Us, and A Blind Man Can See How Much I Love You
- Jennifer Finney Boylan 1980 - Author of The Planets, The Constellations, and the memoir She's Not There
- Robin Cook 1962 - Medical mystery writer whose books include Abduction, Chromosome 6, Coma, Shock, and many other bestsellers
- Ted Fiske 1959 - Educational writer, creator of The Fiske Guide to Colleges
- William H. Gass
- Daniel Handler 1992 - Author (under the pseudonym Lemony Snicket) of A Series of Unfortunate Events children's book series
- Sebastian Junger 1984 - Author of The Perfect Storm and Fire
- Robert Ludlum 1951 - The late writer whose books include The Bourne Identity, The Matarese Circle, and many others
- C. Richard (Rick) Nicita 1967 - Cochairman, Creative Artists Agency
- Charles Olson 1932 - modernist poet
- Dr. Michael Palmer 1964 - Medical mystery writer whose books include Side Effects, Flashback, Extreme Measures, and Natural Causes
- Mary Roach - author of Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers
- Sara Shandler 2002 - Author of Ophelia Speaks: Adolescent Girls Write About Their Search for Self

Medicine

- Dr. Herbert Benson 1957 - Founding president of the Mind/Body Medical Institute; author of The Relaxation Response
- Dr. Laman Gray, Jr. 1963 - Artificial heart surgeon
- Dr. Jay Levy 1960 - AIDS researcher and educator; professor, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco
- Emelie Marcus 1982 - Editor of the scientific journal Cell.

News

- Eric Asimov 1979 - Restaurant columnist and editor, The New York Times; nephew of Isaac Asimov
- William Blakemore 1965 - Correspondent, ABC News
- Ethan Bronner 1976 - Assistant editorial page editor, The New York Times
- Dominique Browning 1977 - Editor-in-chief, House & Garden Magazine
- Jane Eisner 1977 - Columnist, The Philadelphia Inquirer
- Alberto Ibargüen 1966 - Publisher, The Miami Herald, Chair of PBS Board of Directors
- Brooks Kraft 1987 - Nationally recognized photojournalist whose pictures of the White House and President Bush have appeared in Time Magazine.
- Alex Kotlowitz 1977 - Journalist, activist, author of There Are No Children Here
- Caroline Little 1981 - COO of Washington Post.Newsweek Interactive
- Randall Pinkston 1972 - Emmy Award-winning television journalist
- C. Sumner (Chuck) Stone 1948 - Professor of journalism at University of North Carolina; former editor, Philadelphia Daily News
- Michael Yamashita 1971 - Photographer, National Geographic
- John Yang 1980 - Correspondent, ABC News

Politics

- Gerald Baliles 1963 - Former governor of Virginia
- John Hickenlooper 1974 - Mayor of Denver, Colorado.
- Robert E. Hunter 1962 - Former United States ambassador to NATO, now president of the Atlantic Treaty Organization

Science

- Kenneth G. Carpenter 1976, MA 1977, Project Scientist for Hubble Space Telescope Operations

Sports

- Bill Belichick 1975 - Head coach, New England Patriots, winner of 2002, 2004, and 2005 Super Bowls
- Ambrose Burfoot 1968 - First collegian to win the Boston Marathon; executive editor, Runner's World Magazine
- Jeff Galloway 1967 - Celebrated runner and author of Galloway's Book on Running
- Bill Rodgers 1970 - Renowned runner, winner of four New York and four Boston marathons

Theater

Wesleyan is home to the first, and one of the most active, student-run college theater companies in the country. This company, Second Stage, produces at least one show almost every weekend during the school year, either in the fully-equipped Patricelli '92 Theater, alternate spaces around campus, such as dorm lounges and fraternities, or both. The '92 Theater became available for student run productions when the Center for the Arts opened in 1974, providing the Theater Department with what was then a state-of-the-art facility. Second Stage provides students with invaluable experience in running their own small theater company.

Astronomy

The Van Vleck Observatory, built in 1914, sits atop Foss Hill near the center of the Wesleyan campus. According to the department's web site, "The telescopes are used for research-based observing programs and sky watching events open to Wesleyan students and the general public." The university owns three telescopes. A 16-inch, and a 20-inch are both used for weekly public observing nights, open to the Wesleyan community and the general public. The third telescope, the 24-inch Perkins telescope, is used primarily for research, including for senior and graduate student thesis projects, as well as for departmental research programs. The Perkins scope is one of the largest telescopes in New England. Wesleyan also has a partnership with the WIYN .9-meter telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona. Students and faculty have the opportunity to spend time in Arizona doing research with the telescope.

Notes

# Students for Democratic Action [http://www.wesleyan.edu/argus/dateyear/w26.html On the December resistance], opinion piece in Wesleyan Argus. No date, apparently December 2004. Retrieved 26 Nov 2005. # [http://www.wesufm.org/his.html Fragments//WESU History] on website of WESU-FM. Retrieved 26 Nov 2005. # Adrian Peterson, [http://radiodx.com/spdxr/oldest_radio_station.htm Discovered At Last - The Oldest Radio Station In The World], originally aired over Adventist World Radio's "Wavescan" program. Retrieved 26 Nov 2005. # [http://www.wesufm.org/press%20release/pr112304status.htm November 23, 2004 WESU press release]. Retrieved 26 Nov 2005. # Students for Democratic Action, op. cit. # http://bartik.brynmawr.edu/students/lfriedma/queer/definitions.html#flexual, accessed 1 Nov 2005 # http://www.wesleyan.edu/queer, accessed 31 Oct 2005. # [http://www.keenconsultants.com/page1.html Keen Consultants] # # [http://www.astro.wesleyan.edu/index.html Wesleyan University Astronomy Department], accessed 31 Oct 2005.

External links

- [http://www.wesleyan.edu/ Wesleyan University]
- [http://www.wesleyan.edu/newsletter/ The Wesleyan Connection] - Official online newsletter
- [http://www.wesleyanargus.com/ The Wesleyan Argus] - School newspaper
- [http://www.wesleyan.edu/about/profile.ctt Wesleyan's University Profile]
- [http://www.wesleyan.edu/about/uhistory.ctt Wesleyan's History]
- [http://www.wesleyan.edu/weshistory Articles on Wesleyan History by Students]
- [http://www.2ndstage.org Wesleyan University Second Stage] Category:Universities and colleges in Connecticut Category:Liberal arts colleges Category:New England Small College Athletic Conference

McCarthyism

McCarthyism took place during a period of intense suspicion in the United States primarily from 1950 to 1954, when the U.S. government was actively countering American Communist Party subversion, its leadership, and others suspected of being Communists or Communist sympathizers. During this period people from all walks of life became the subject of aggressive "witch-hunts," often based on inconclusive or questionable evidence. It grew out of the Second Red Scare that began in the late 1940s and is named after the U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican of Wisconsin. Wisconsin, Robert A. Taft, Styles Bridges and Republican National Chairman Guy Gabrielson.]]

Background

In June of 1947, members of the Senate Appropriations Committee sent a confidential report to Secretary of State George Marshall, in which they stated:

It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect Communist personnel in high places, but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity. . . . On file in the Department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States, which involves large numbers of State Department employees. . . this report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department...

In a six-hour speech on the Senate floor on February 20, 1950, McCarthy raised the issue of some eighty individuals who had worked in the State Department, or wartime agencies such as the Office of War Information (OWI) and the Board of Economic Warfare (BEW). McCarthy began with a half truth, that a large foreign espionage ring existed within the government and the Truman administration was doing nothing about it; the other half truth was that the Truman administration was doing nothing about it because it did not know of the existence of the Venona project.

Tensions of the times

Beginning 24 June 1948 the first major crisis of the Cold War exposed the rift in the Alliance of World War II which had defeated Germany, when Soviet troops blockaded access points to Berlin, sparking the first Berlin Crisis, and lasting a year. On 16 August Harry Dexter White, the first head of the International Monetary Fund, a keystone post war institution, died of a heart attack three days after denying involvement with Soviet espionage during World War II before the House Unamerican Activities Committee (HUAC). His involvement was later postively determined by the FBI through evidence gathered by the Venona project as a Soviet agent code named "Jurist".[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist] In late summer of 1949, on 29 August the Soviet atomic bomb project was revealed when it exploded a replica of Fat Man; the Soviet Union had gained nuclear technology by espionage from the United States, which spent $4 billion dollars (about $48 billion in today's dollars) to develop during World War II. Later that fall, on 1 October Maoist forces were victorious after the effective subversion of President Roosevelt’s support for the Chinese Nationalist government during World War II. On 21 January, 1950, Alger Hiss, the General Secretary of the United Nations Charter meeting, was convicted of perjury for testimony before HUAC regarding espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union. That same month, physicist Klaus Fuchs confessed in Great Britain to espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War. On 25 June, the Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. A confrontation that came with the potential for the use of nuclear weapons — weapons whose technology had been given to the enemy by US citizens, some within the government. Three weeks later, on 17 July, Julius Rosenberg was arrested on charges of espionage regarding the transfer of technology to the Soviet Union to build the atomic weapon. In May 1951, two members of the Cambridge Five — Donald MacLean, Second Secretary of the British Embassy in Washington, D.C., and Guy Burgess — defected to Moscow after it was discovered MacLean transmitted information on the atom bomb from the British Embassy to the Soviet Union during World War II. McCarthy was worried that communism would spread into America and internal treason would result. In this atmosphere, McCarthyism flourished.

Origin of the term

The term originates from March 29, 1950 political cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block. The cartoon depicted four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant (the traditional symbol of the Republican Party) to stand on a teetering stack of ten tar buckets, the topmost of which was labeled "McCarthyism". The reluctant elephant was quoted in the caption as saying "You mean I'm supposed to stand on that?". The Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy reported in 1997, "The first fact is that a significant Communist conspiracy was in place in Washington, New York, and Los Angeles, but in the main those involved systematically denied their involvement". [http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa6.html] Declassified Soviet-era documents confirm Soviet spies infiltrated the U.S. State Department in the 1930s and 1940s. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1218/is_21_126/ai_n12442119] However, based on his perceptions that the administration was not investigating Communists, McCarthy began investigations himself, and as he attacked more prominent figures within the government and military, his strength faltered. McCarthy faltered in 1954 as his hearings were televised live for the first time on the new American Broadcasting Company. ABC needed to fill its afternoon slots, which allowed the public and press to view first-hand McCarthy's interrogation of individuals and controversial tactics. In a famous exchange, the Army's attorney general, Joseph Welch, rebuked McCarthy: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?" The press was by this time quite anti-McCarthy, and reports that McCarthyism was ruining the reputations and lives of many people without credible evidence were common. Even some Republicans denounced him, among them Henry Luce and Robert R. McCormick. By the time famed CBS newsman Edward R. Murrow's highly critical "Report on Joseph R. McCarthy" aired on March 9, 1954, McCarthy's public support had all but withered.

Alleged victims of McCarthyism

Persons who were alleged to have been victims of McCarthyism were either denied employment in the private sector or failed government security checks. Some of those alleged to have been blacklisted were: #David Bohm, Physicist #Charlie Chaplin, Actor #Aaron Copland, Composer of modern tonal music #Dashiell Hammett, Author #Lillian Hellman, Playwright and left-wing activist #Arthur Miller, Playwright and essayist #Paul Robeson, Actor, athlete, singer, writer, political and civil rights activist, and winner of Stalin Peace Prize #Waldo Salt, writer, government employee & CPUSA member. #Paul Sweezy, economist and founder-editor of Monthly Review #John Garfield, Actor #Elia Kazan, film and theatre director and producer, Committee Witness #John Hubley, animator

Soviet Archives

Though many of McCarthy's specific charges were unsubstantiated, material unearthed in Russian archives after the fall of the Soviet Union has proven that his general charge (that Communist spies had infiltrated the federal government) was true. The American Communist Party (CPUSA) was in the pay of the Soviet Union. Communist spies included Julius Rosenberg and Theodore Hall, who gave nuclear secrets to the Soviets, Alger Hiss, who became Secretary General to the founding charter conference of the United Nations, and Harry Dexter White, who was the founding head of the International Monetary Fund.

Critique

From the viewpoint of some conservatives and McCarthy supporters at the time, the identification of foreign agents and the suppression of "radical organizations" was necessary. Senator McCarthy and his followers felt there was a dangerous subversive element that posed a danger to the security of the country, thereby justifying extreme measures—the embodiment of realpolitik. The Arthur Miller play The Crucible, written during the McCarthy era, used the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for the McCarthyism of the 1950s, suggesting that the process of McCarthyism-style persecution can occur at any time or place when the hysteria of nuclear holocaust grips a nation whose own citizens betray secrets to an enemy the country is at war with. Although Miller denied these claims, it is clear that the McCarthy events conspiring around him influenced his writing. For instance, those accused during the McCarthy trials had nearly no chance of proving their innocence. To the accused, even the power of logic seemed questionable at times. Similarly, those accused in The Crucible could not try to rationalize their innocence; doing so would be undermining the court, direct heresy during those strict theocratic times. Miller also was mindful to include similar court techniques such as coercing witnesses and absolution through public repentance. Miller effectively mirrored the contemporary events through his play while using the events of the past to highlight current happenings. Many people see the film Invasion of the Body Snatchers to be a critique of both McCarthyism and communism. Director Don Siegel has claimed that neither message was intended, though. Ann Coulter wrote extensively in her book Treason about Senator McCarthy, and offered a defense for many of his activities and those of HUAC.

External links

- [http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6444/ "Have You No Sense of Decency": The Army-McCarthy Hearings] Transcript
- [http://www.gpo.gov/congress/senate/senate12cp107.html Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations (McCarthy Hearings 1953-54)]
- [http://www.senate.gov/reference/reference_index_subjects/Investigations_vrd.htm McCarthy Hearings] Category:1950s Category:Anti-communism Category:Ethics Category:Pejorative political terms Category:Political repression Category:History of foreign relations of the United States Category:U.S. history of anti-Communism ja:マッカーシズム

1950s

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Events and trends

The 1950s in Western society was marked with a sharp rise in the economy for the first time in almost 30 years and return to the 1920s-type consumer society built on credit and boom-times, as well as the the baby boom from returning GIs who went to college under the Montgomery G.I. Bill and settled in suburban America. Most of the internal conflicts that had developed in earlier decades like women's rights, civil rights, imperialism, and war were relatively suppressed or neglected during this time as a returning world from the brink hoped to see a more consistent way of life as opposed to liberalism and radicalism of the 1930s and 1940s. The effect of suppressing social problems in the 50s would backfire in the 60s with the counter-culture movement. The 1950s were also marked with a rapid rise in conflict with the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union that would heighten the Cold War to an unprecedented level which would include the Arms Race, Space Race, McCarthyism, and Korean War. Stalin's death in 1953 left an enormous impact in Eastern Europe that forced the Soviet Union to create more liberal policies internally and externally. The rise of Suburbia as well as the growing conflict with the East are the two generally accepted reasons for the conservative domination of this decade.

Technology

- United States tests the first fusion bomb. See History of nuclear weapons
- Sputnik, the first man-made satellite, and thus the Sputnik crisis
- The De Havilland Comet enters service as the world's first jet airliner
- Charles Townes builds a maser in 1953 at Columbia University.

Science

- Urey-Miller experiment shows that under simulated conditions resembling those thought to have existed shortly after Earth first accreted, many of the basic organic molecules that form the building blocks of modern life are able to spontaneously form
- Francis Crick and James D. Watson discover the helical structure of DNA at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge
- Bruce Heezen discovers the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- Polio vaccine
- The first organ transplants are done in Boston and Paris in 1954.

War, peace, and politics

- Korean War
- Red Scare, McCarthy Hearings
- Suez Crisis
- European Common Market founded.
- Warsaw pact founded.
- Most aboveground nuclear test explosions happened during this decade.
- The United States CIA orchestrated the overthrow of the Guatemalan government.
- Hungarian revolution of 1956 brutally suppressed by Soviet Union's troops.
- Fidel Castro gains power in Cuba.
- Mahmoud Abbas becomes involved in Palestinian politics in Qatar.
- Decolonization: Algeria, Vietnam, and elsewhere.
- Early history of the People's Republic of China, of the state of Israel, and of the Indonesian state.

Economics

- "Economic miracle" in West Germany and Italy.

Culture, religion

- Traditional pop music reaches its climax; early rock and roll music was embraced by teenagers/youth culture while generally dismissed or condemned by older generations.
- Brylcreem and other hair tonics have a period of popularity
- Television replaces radio as the dominant mass medium in industrialized countries.
- In the West, the generation traumatized by the Great Depression and World War II creates a culture with emphasis on normality and calm conformity.
- Juvenile delinquency said to be at unprecedented epidemic proportions in USA, though some see this era as relatively low in crime compared to today. Continuing poverty in some regions during recessions later on in this decade.
- Fairly high rates of unionization, government social spending, taxes, and the like in the US and European countries. Mostly liberal or moderate Western governments, though communism/Cold War play a role in reaction to, and within, domestic politics.
- Beatnik culture/ The Beat Generation
- Optimistic visions of semi-Utopian technological future including such devices as the flying car.
- The Day the Earth Stood Still hits movie theaters.
- Along with the appearance of the sentence Kilroy was here across the United States, graffiti as an art form develops, especially among urban African Americans; graffiti eventually becomes one of the four elements of hip hop
- Considerable racial tension with military and schools desegregation in the US, though controversy never truly erupts as later on in the 1960s.
- The Catcher in the Rye
- The Twilight Zone premiers as the first major science-fiction show. Rise of evangelical Christianity including Youth for Christ (1943); the National Association of Evangelicals, the American Council of Christian Churces, the Billy Graham Evagelistic Association (1950), and the Campus Crusade for Christ (1951). Christianity Today was first published in 1956. 1956 also marked the beginning of Bethany Fellowship, a small press that would grow to be a leading evangelical press.
- Carl Stuart Hamblen religious radio broadcaster.

Others

- Wartime rationing ends in the United Kingdom.

People

World leaders

- Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent (Canada)
- Prime Minister John Diefenbaker (Canada)
- Chairman Mao Zedong (People's Republic of China)
- President Chiang Kai-shek (Republic of China on Taiwan)
- President Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
- Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
- Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion (Israel)
- Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
- Pope Pius XII
- Pope John XXIII
- Taoiseach John A. Costello (Ireland)
- Taoiseach Eamon de Valera (Ireland)
- Taoiseach Sean Lemass (Ireland)
- Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
- Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet Union)
- King George VI (United Kingdom)
- Queen Elizabeth II (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Robert Menzies (Australia)
- Prime Minister George Borg Olivier (Malta)
- President Harry S. Truman (United States)
- President Dwight D. Eisenhower (United States)
- Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (West Germany)
- President Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)

Entertainers

- Desi Arnaz
- Abbott and Costello
- Paul Anka
- Lucille Ball
- Jack Benny
- Chuck Berry
- Humphrey Bogart
- Marlon Brando
- Maria Callas
- Dalida
- James Dean
- Bo Diddley
- Margot Fonteyn
- Ava Gardner
- The Goons
- Cary Grant
- Tony Hancock
- Audrey Hepburn
- Charlton Heston
- Alfred Hitchcock
- Buddy Holly
- Grace Kelly
- Ernie Kovacs
- Mario Lanza
- Jerry Lewis
- Dean Martin
- Groucho Marx
- Marilyn Monroe
- Paul Newman
- Laurence Olivier
- Elvis Presley
- George Reeves
- Little Richard
- James Stewart
- Gale Storm
- Jerry Lee Lewis
- Jacques Tati
- Elizabeth Taylor
- John Wayne
- Jack Webb
- Ed Wynn

Sports figures

- Alberto Ascari (Italian racing driver)
- Roger Bannister (English track and field athlete)
- Yogi Berra (American baseball player)
- Maureen Connolly (American tennis player)
- Colin Cowdrey (England cricketer)
- Juan Manuel Fangio (Argentinian racing driver)
- Neil Harvey (Australian cricketer)
- Gordie Howe (Canadian ice hockey player)
- Len Hutton (England cricketer)
- Rocky Marciano (American boxer)
- Stanley Matthews (English soccer player)
- Willie Mays (American baseball player)
- Ferenc Puskás (Hungarian soccer player)
- Maurice Richard (Canadian ice hockey player)
- Sugar Ray Robinson (American boxer)
- Bill Russell (American basketball player)
- Gary Sobers (West Indies cricketer)
- Brian Statham (England cricketer)
- Frank Tyson (England cricketer)
- Frank Worrell (West Indies cricketer)
- Lev Yashin (Russian soccer player)

External links

- [http://www.fiftiesweb.com The FiftiesWeb]
- [http://vlib.iue.it/history/USA/ERAS/20TH/1950s.html WWW-VL: 1950s History] Category:1950s ko:1950년대 ja:1950年代 simple:1950s

Civil rights movement

.]] Civil rights are the protections and privileges of personal liberty given to all citizens by law. Civil rights are distinguished from "human rights" or "natural rights"; civil rights are rights that persons do have, while natural or human rights are rights that many scholars think that people should have. For example, the philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) argued that the natural rights of life, liberty, and property should be converted into civil rights and protected by the state as an aspect of the social contract. Others have argued that people acquire rights as an inalienable gift from God or at a time of nature before governments were formed. Laws guaranteeing civil rights may be written, derived from custom, or implied. In the United States and most continental European counties, civil rights laws are most often written. In the United States, for example, laws protecting civil rights appear in the Constitution, in the amendments to the Constitution (particularly the 13th and 14th Amendments), in federal statutes, in state constitutions and statutes, and even in the ordinances of counties and cities. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, such rights are frequently granted by custom and are not memorialized in a written law. "Implied" rights are rights that a court may find to exist even though not expressly guaranteed by written law or custom, on the theory that a written or customary right must necessarily include the implied right. One famous (and controversial) example of a right implied from the U.S. Constitution is the "right to privacy", which the U.S. Supreme Court found to exist in the 1965 case of Griswold v. Connecticut. In the 1973 case of Roe v. Wade the Court found that state legislation prohibiting or limiting abortion violated this right to privacy. States and local governments can expand civil rights beyond the U.S. Constitution, but they cannot diminish Constitutional rights. For example, some American cities make it illegal to discriminate against persons on the basis of their sexual orientation, thus expanding the civil rights of homosexuals; however, cities which create school districts in such a way that the districts discriminate against students on the basis of their race will have injunctions entered against them by the federal courts. States frequently grant civil rights in excess of federal law, such as Article 21 of the Maryland Constitution, which requires that a jury be unanimous in order to convict a person of a crime. Examples of civil rights and liberties include the right to get redress if injured by another, the right to privacy, the right of peaceful protest, the right to a fair investigation and trial if suspected of a crime, and more generally-based constitutional rights such as the right to vote, the right to personal freedom, the right to life, the right to freedom of movement and anti-discrimination laws. As civilisations emerged and formalised through written constitutions, some of the more important civil rights were granted to citizens. When those grants were later found inadequate, civil rights movements emerged as the vehicle for claiming more equal protection for all citizens and advocating new laws to limit the effect of current discriminations. Civil rights can in one sense refer to the equal treatment of all citizens irrespective of race, sex, or other class, or it can refer to laws which invoke claims of positive liberty. An example of the former would be the decision in Brown v. Board of Education 347 U.S. 483 (1954) which was concerned with the constitutionality of laws which imposed segregation in the education systems of some U.S states. The theories set out below explain why such laws should not be considered legitimate, but do not explain why the case failed to declare the general principle that all manifestations of segregation were a breach of civil rights (that would be more properly a question of politics). The U.S. legislature subsequently addressed the issue through the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Sec. 201. which states: (a) All persons shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, and accommodations of any place of public accommodation, as defined in this section, without discrimination or segregation on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin. Some other countries have enacted similar legislation, or have given direct effect to supranational treaties and agreements such as the European Convention on Human Rights (with forty-five countries as signatories), which encompass both human rights and civil liberties.

Related terminology

The term 'civil rights' is often used synonymously with civil liberties, even though theoretical jurisprudence distinguishes between right and liberty (see below: Hohfeld). The root of the word 'civil' reflects the association between a bundle of rights and 'citizenship'. The term Human rights refers to a broader concept.
In the early legal systems of Ancient Rome, plebeians and women had no right to vote whether as a juror or for political purposes, and ownership of property was an aspect of patria potestas, i.e. only the father of the family could own property, his wife, relatives and children having no right of ownership. Similarly, the mediaeval European city-states limited access to the status of citizenship and the civil rights associated with it. This practice of dividing societies by reference to class or caste associates privilege with the upper layers of society and means that civil rights attach to people by virute of their citizenship of a state.
Today, in most western societies, it is taken for granted that every person has a number of rights and freedoms, which are valued deeply, closely associated to the modern concept of democracy and supported by public policy. Civil rights are claimed to be the pillars of modern societies. Nevertheless, it is domicile that attaches to an individual at birth, regardless of such factors as race, gender or class, and determines status and capacity. As each individual moves from state to state, the extent of the civil rights to be enjoyed will be determined by the interaction between the domicile of origin, and the cultures and laws of those states in which that person resides as a citizen.
The term human rights is not limited to citizenship of one state and reflects the concept of fundamental rights that all human beings can claim. Whereas 'civil rights', 'civil liberties' and 'constitutional rights' are used to denote expectations as to behaviour and treatment by fellow citizens in any one sovereign state, 'human rights' is more often used in the context of international law, the supranational systems of law that may or may not have direct effect in sovereign states depending on the treaties signed by each state and the nature of their legal systems. Human rights include civil rights. The term may also refer to the rights of refugees and the problems of statelessness; however, the debate on the extent of fundamental human rights is much broader. Jurist Karel Vasak, for example, discusses a right to peace and the right to a clean environment as fundamental human rights.

Theoretical background: The concept of right

Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld (1879-1918) maintained that analysis of legal issues is frequently muddled and inconsistent because the legal concepts are improperly understood. The first question, therefore, is to understand what the rights are in "civil rights". There are two major schools of thought:
- Hohfeld proposed a structured system of interrelated concepts
- Nozick and Rawls approached the concept of rights from the perspectives of libertarian and political theory.

Hohfeld's concept of right

Hohfeld distinguished right from liberty, and power from immunity — concepts that are often used interchangeably in non-technical discourse, but are philosophically different. By examining the relationships between these concepts, he hoped to explain the legal interests that have evolved in the real world of civil society and to answer the question whether citizens of a state have any right to access any of the possible forms of social security.
- Right and duty are corelative concepts, i.e. one must always be matched by the other. If A claims a right against B, this is meaningless unless B has a duty to honour A's right. If B has no duty, that means that B has liberty, i.e. B can do whatever he or she pleases because B has no duty to refrain from doing it, and A has no right to prohibit B from doing so. An individual would be considered to have perfect liberty if no one has a right to prevent the given act.
- Power means the capacity to create legal relationships and to create rights and liabilities. The corelative of power is liability. If A has power over B, B must have liability towards A. For example, properly constituted courts have the power to pass judgements that impose liabilities but, if the defendants are outside the courts' jurisdiction, the judgements are unenforceable. Similarly, a legislature has power to make laws, but those laws that attempt to restrict a fundamental right may be unconstitutional. If the laws are valid, they create a disability; the legal opposite of disability is power. So, children or people suffering from a mental disability should be protected from liability and their power to make a binding contract is removed. A person loses the right to sue another to recover a debt if the period of limitation has expired.
- The legal opposite of liability is immunity. In some countries, government departments exercising sovereign powers cannot be sued in tort and the President or the Prime Minister cannot be personally liable in respect of any contract made or assurance given for the purposes of the state. These are examples of immunities. Although the word right is often used to describe liberty, power, or immunity, Hohfeld clearly distinguished them. Indeed, Hohfeld described liberty as an a priori condition of the rule of law, coming into existence long before any Bill of Rights and offering an individual power to the extent that it is not restricted by any law. Essentially, Hohfeld believed that anyone who tries to encroach on the liberty of a citizen must be required to demonstrate their clear right to do so. After more than eighty years of consideration, some doubt whether this set of conceptual relationships is philosophically sustainable. But, the core juxtaposition of right, duty and liberty remains a seductive argument.

Libertarian and political theory: Nozick and Rawls

Minimal state

Robert Nozick (1938-2003) offered a model of a "minimal state", described as libertarianism. Nozick argued that no state is ever justified in offering anything more than the most minimal of state functions, and further, that whatever might exist by way of rights exists only in the negative sense of those actions not yet prohibited. He denied the possibility that any citizen can have rights that require others to offer him or her services at the state's expense, and tested whether exchanges between individuals were legitimate by an entitlement theory:
- The "transfer principle" holds that goods or services "freely acquired from others who acquired them in a just way are justly acquired"
- The "acquisition principle" states that people are entitled to retain all holdings acquired in a just way
- The "rectification principle" requires that any violation of the first two principles be repaired by returning holdings to their rightful owners as a "one time" redistribution (a reference to the Rawlsian Difference Principle). Nozick, therefore, believed that there are no positive civil rights, only rights to property and the right of autonomy. For him, a just society does as much as possible to protect everyone's independence and freedom to take any action for the benefit of one's self. This is an important teleological protection: the Jeffersonian right to the pursuit of happiness is the freedom to engage in any actions so long as they do not infringe upon that same right exercised by others. Critics of the minimal state-model argue that a state which provides no services to citizens is inadequate.

Just society

John Rawls (1921-2002) developed a model of a different form of just society which relied on:
- The "liberty principle" which holds that citizens require minimal civil and legal rights to protect themselves
- The "difference principle" which states that every citizen would want to live in a society where improving the condition of the poorest becomes the first priority. For Rawls, a right is an "entitlement or justified claim on others" which comprises both negative and positive obligations, i.e. both that others must not harm anyone (negative obligation), and surrender a proportion of their earnings through taxation for the benefit of low-income earners (positive). This blurs the relationship between rights and duties as proposed by Hohfeld. For example if a citizen had the right to free medical care, then others (through the agency of the government) would be obligated to provide that service. Critics of Rawl's approach doubt whether the difference principle is congruous with a state consistently applying the capitalist model. Rawl's ideas however have influenced the implementation of social market economies within a capitalist system in European countries like Germany. The difference between Rawls and Nozick is that Rawls thought that a state should always provide the basic fundamentals of physical existence, whereas Nozick gave no guarantee save that an individual always had the freedom to pursue his or her own ends.

Concepts applied: an example

The rights that evolve through history will be the product of the culture in the given state and they will exist independently of the legal system. The extent to which the state decides to give any of these rights some legal enforcement will be determined by the balance struck between the competing interests within the society. As an example, let us take a proposal to make it illegal to treat people differently on the basis of race. This fits into the context of a general freedom of association and has relevance to freedom of thought. So, one view would be that employment is a personal contract and, because employer and employee must work together well if the business is to prosper, the employer should be free to employ whoever he or she wishes. Similarly, so long as a person keeps his thoughts to him or herself, no change should be necessary. What philosophical justifications would there be for imposing duties and liabilities to modify behaviour and correct thought?
- In Nozick's model, there would be no justification. Every citizen is free to offer employment and/or to offer their labour, and any interference with these freedoms would diminish autonomy. In capitalist countries, this philosophy resonates powerfully with citizens who oppose any restriction on their right to use their justly acquired wealth for their own benefit.
- For Rawls, the Liberty Principle means that no one person should be any less "equal" than any other. Therefore, it would be appropriate to restrict liberty and impose duties to promote social justice. This model works best in countries where the principle of wealth distribution is accepted by the majority. Hence, particular notions of what may constitute fairness or justice will always drive public calls for coercive anti-discrimination laws to fill in the gap where the naming and shaming of "offenders" is not an effective deterrent.
- Hohfeld's analysis would be apolitical. Unlike Nozick and Rawls, the method does not depend on particular political assumptions, but applies rigor to identify the issues of principle. Hence, Hohfeld would begin with an unregulated society in which the employer has a power but no duty to offer employment to all citizens. This is enshrined in the fundamental principle, freedom of contract, which requires that every contract be a consensual bargain. If the codified practice of employers is not to offer employment to a class of citizens, this denial of opportunity is the equivalent of a disability and, as such, a state could act to remove the de facto immunity protecting the employers from appropriate legal redress. What form would this redress take? It cannot be the grant of an absolute right to employment in every citizen of the affected class. There may be many employers in the society but not every one of them may require additional employees. So the earliest time that a corelative duty to offer employment could attach to an employer is when a vacancy arises. But this is only one vacancy and there may be many seeking it. Which among those offering their labour has the best right to the one job? In the reality of this theoretical society, this has to be a decision made by the employer since only the employer has the power to create the contract (i.e. to define the terms and conditions of the work to be done and the wage or salary to be paid). So the only right that the state can give members of the affected class is the right to be judged fairly as against other job applicants and, if successful, to be offered the same terms and conditions applied to those already employed. Anything more than that would be to give job seekers rights and powers that no other part of the law of contract allows — a clearly unjustified outcome since this would be encroaching on the standard package of rights and liberties enjoyed by all citizens in all the other areas of commercial activity within the state. So, a balance is struck. The need for general certainty in the operation of the law outweighs the benefit from introducing a limited exception for the benefit of one group. Yet, a way is found within the law as it stands, for some relief to be given to a disadvantaged class. It is a compromise struck in expediency, but which achieves the desired outcome.

Civil rights movement

Historically, the process of moving toward equality under the law was long and tenuous. But after a status had been reached where every citizen has the same rights by law, practical issues of discrimination remain. Even if every person is treated equally by the state, there may not be equality because of discrimination within society, such as in the workplace, which may hinder civil liberties in everyday life. During the second half of the 20th century Western societies have therefore introduced legislation that tries to remove discrimination on the basis of race, gender or disability.

Civil Rights Movement in Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland saw the formation of the Campaign for Social Justice in Belfast in 1964, followed by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in 1967. It consciously modelled itself on the civil rights movement in the United States. The largely Catholic membership demanded the repeal of the Special Powers Acts of 1922, 1933, and 1943, and an end to the discrimination by Ulster Unionist Party government, especially the gerrymandering of local electoral districts to ensure the victory of unionist candidates in areas with nationalist majorities (most blatantly in the city of Derry), in the awarding of local authority housing and in employment. Tentative steps to address these issues by Prime Minister Terence O'Neill was met with vehement opposition from hardline Protestant politicans, most notably Ian Paisley. Frustration at the resistance to reform and the heavy-handed tactics of the RUC and the British army, first caught on film on Duke Street in Derry on 5th October 1968, pushed many Catholics towards supporting the IRA. The British government responded with a policy of internment without trial of suspected republicans which provoked a civil disobedience campaign. For more than three hundred people, the internment lasted several years. In 1978, in a case brought by the government of the Republic of Ireland against the government of the United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the interrogation techniques approved for use by the British army on internees in 1971 amounted to "inhuman and degrading" treatment. In an attempt to break the escalating cycle of violence including Bloody Sunday in Derry, the British Government introduced direct rule from London in 1972, proroguing the Northern Ireland Parliament. But, following the ending of an IRA ceasefire in 1976, there was a resumption of the political violence that has long been a feature of life in Northern Ireland. The Good Friday Agreement introduced power-sharing but the devolved assembly at Stormont has been suspended since October 2002 and the British Parliamentary Election in 2005 produced a polarised result, diminishing the power of the more moderate parties. One of the leaders of NICRA was future Nobel Peace Prize winner John Hume, another, Austin Currie, a candidate for President of Ireland in 1990. Hume's co-Nobel Laureate, David Trimble, was leader of the Ulster Unionist Party in the 1990s and 2000s, and had campaigned against sharing power with Catholics in the 1970s. Although some progress has been made, there is a political vacuum in Northern Ireland, caused by the breakdown of the peace process, and many of the issues in policing, housing, and employment first raised by the Campaign for Social Justice in 1964 have yet to be resolved. Joan Harbison, head of Northern Ireland's Equality Commission, noted in her Annual Report in 2000 that, "while this Report reveals that the overall composition of Catholics in the civil service, at 38%, continues to move closer to the figure for labour availability, major under-representation continues to exist within the most senior grades." At present, senior civil servants in Northern Ireland are required to hold a British passport, ruling out those who hold Irish citizenship. In the more recent Monitoring Report No. 14 A Profile of the Northern Ireland Workforce published by the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland in November, 2004, Roman Catholics comprise 42.7% of those of working age available for work. "Comparing only those sections of the fulltime workforce which were monitored in 1990, the overall Roman Catholic share has increased by 5.9 percentage points, from 34.9% in 1990 to 40.8% in 2003." (2004, at p9) But, despite the improvement in the overall pattern of employment, there are causes for concern. For example, in the Security Related Occupations, which include the Police Service, the Royal Irish Regiment, the Prison Service, etc. "The composition was 85.6% Protestant. 9.9% Roman Catholic, and 4.5% undetermined." (2004 at p27).
- See the debate of the Northern Ireland Assembly at http://www.niassembly.gov.uk/record/reports/000628.htm
- and the pdf of the Fair Employment Monitoring Report No 14 - A Profile of the Northern Ireland Workforce at http://www.equalityni.org/publications/recentpubdetails.cfm?id=2
- [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm John Whyte: How much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921–68?]

Liberal feminism

Main article: Liberal feminism Whereas radical feminists believe that an improvement of the situation for women can only be achieved through a revolutionary social change, liberal feminism suggests a more conservative approach. Liberal feminists try to achieve equality for women through social reforms by changing institutions and law so as to accommodate gender equality. This approach proved successful. It was liberal feminism that initiated changes in European institutions and that brought about legislature against the discrimination of women. In some European countries (f. i. Austria) job adverts may not be worded in such a way so as to exclude female applicants. Public institutions often try to increase the number of females and encourage women to apply. Feminist writers associated with this tradition are amongst others Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill and second wave feminist Betty Friedan. One major step in the civil rights of women was the movement for the right to vote for women in the early 20th century.

References

- Hohfeld, W. N. Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning, ed. by W.W. Cook (1919); reprint, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964.
- Nozick, Robert. Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Basic Books. 1974.
- John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Revised edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 1999), ISBN 0-674-00077-3.

External links

- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/civil-rights/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
- [http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/index.htm Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project]
- [http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/PhotoAlbum/civil_rights.cfm Images of the Civil Rights Movement in Florida]
- [http://www.crmvet.org/ Civil Rights Movement Veterans]
- [http://themiddleoftheinternet.com/ Susan Klopfer's Mississippi Civil Rights Bookstore]
- [http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/VideoFilm2/video.cfm?VID=42 St. Augustine Race Riots] Brief video clip of demonstrations by blacks on Butler Beach in St. Augustine.
- [http://http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2716/ Civil Rights Movement]
- [http://www.lulu.com/content/135246 Where Rebels Roost... Mississippi Civil Rights Revisited] Category:Rights Category:Social justice
- zh-tw:公民權利civil right the right to justice

Joseph McCarthy

Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician originally aligned with the United States Democratic Party and later with the United States Republican Party. McCarthy served as a U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957. During his ten years in the Senate, McCarthy and his staff became notorious for aggressive investigations of people in the U.S. government and others suspected of being Soviet agents on grounds of their political beliefs as Communists or Communist sympathizers. As a result, the term McCarthyism was coined to specifically describe the intense anti-Communist movement that existed in America from 1950 to about 1956, a time which became popularly known as the Red Scare. During this period, people who were suspected of varying degrees of Communist loyalties became the subject of aggressive inquiries, which became known as "witch hunts" to his opponents. People from the media, government, and the military were accused by McCarthy of being suspected Soviet spies or Communist sympathizers. Although McCarthy's activities did not result in any convictions or criminal prosecutions for espionage, intercepted Soviet communications from the now-declassified VENONA Project indicate that some of the individuals he pursued may have had hidden Communist associations. The term "McCarthyism" has since become synonymous with any government activity which opponents claim is meant to suppress unfavorable political or social views, often by limiting or suspending civil rights for the alleged purpose of maintaining national security.

Early life and career

McCarthy was born on a farm in the town of Grand Chute, Wisconsin. Although both of his parents had also been born in Wisconsin, his paternal grandmother had been born in Germany, and his three other grandparents in England. McCarthy dropped out of junior high school to help his parents manage their farm, and later returned to school and earned his diploma in one year. McCarthy worked his way through school studying engineering and law, earning a law degree at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin from 1930 to 1935, and was admitted to the Bar Association in 1935. While working in a law firm in Shawano, Wisconsin, he launched an unsuccessful campaign to become District Attorney as a Democrat in 1936. In 1939 he successfully vied for the elected post of 10th District judge, becoming the youngest judge in Wisconsin's history. judge In 1942, shortly after the U.S. entered World War II, McCarthy resigned his judgeship and enlisted as a private in the United States Marine Corps, and later took a commission as a Lieutenant. His judicial office would have exempted him from compulsory service. He served as an intelligence briefing officer for a bomber squadron in the Solomon Islands and Bougainville. Wartime log entries list eleven missions under McCarthy's name as an aerial photographer and tail gunner, and he was awarded a Distinguished Flying Cross in 1952, although opponents who have investigated McCarthy question the Navy's decision to make the award. McCarthy was commended by Admiral Chester Nimitz for flying despite an injury, but others who served with him told investigators working for his opponents that his injuries (a broken foot) resulted from a shipboard hazing incident. He campaigned for the Republican Senate nomination in Wisconsin while still on active duty in 1944, but was easily defeated by incumbent Alexander Wiley. After resigning his commission in April 1945 and being re-elected unopposed to his circuit court position, he began a much more systematic campaign for the 1946 Senate election, again challenging a Republican incumbent, four term Senator and United States Progressive Party icon, Robert M. La Follette, Jr.. In his campaign, McCarthy attacked La Follette for not enlisting during the war; he did not mention that La Follette had been forty-six when Pearl Harbor was bombed, and was in fact too old to join the armed services. McCarthy also claimed that La Follette had made huge profits from his investments while he had been away fighting for his country. The suggestion that La Follette had been guilty of war profiteering (his investments had in fact been in a radio station), was deeply damaging and McCarthy won by 207,935 to 202,557. La Follette, deeply hurt by the false claims made against him, retired from politics, and later committed suicide. McCarthy enjoyed the support of the state party organization, and won the nomination narrowly. He easily defeated his Democratic opponent, Howard MacMurray, in the general election by a 2-1 margin, and joined Senator Wiley, whom he had challenged two years earlier, in the Senate. On his first day in the Senate, McCarthy called a press conference where he proposed a solution to a coal strike that was taking place at the time. McCarthy called for John L. Lewis and the striking miners to be drafted into the Army. If the men still refused to mine the coal, McCarthy suggested they should be court-martialed for insubordination and shot.

Senator

McCarthy's first three years in the Senate were unremarkable. While he was considered friendly and likeable, he was not taken seriously. McCarthy was criticized for his defense of a group of Nazis that had been sentenced to death for their role in the Malmedy massacre of American prisoners of war in 1944. Their death sentences were commuted to life in part because McCarthy charged that they had been denied due process. Many charged the Senator had been duped or enticed by neo-Nazis. McCarthy made a large number of speeches to many different organizations, covering a wide range of topics. His most notable early campaigns were for housing legislation and against sugar rationing. During the presidency of Harry Truman, his national profile rose meteorically after his Lincoln Day speech on February 9, 1950, to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia. McCarthy's words in the speech are a matter of some dispute, as they were not reliably recorded at the time, the media presence being minimal. It is generally agreed, however, that he produced a piece of paper which he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department. McCarthy is quoted to have said "I have here in my hand a list of 205 people that were known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party, and who, nevertheless, are still working and shaping the policy of the State Department." McCarthy stated that he referred to 57 "known Communists," the number 205 referring to the number of people employed by the State Department who, for various security reasons, should not have been. The exact number stated by McCarthy would later become a matter of some importance when the matter was brought before the Tydings Committee. The State Department had a document which listed employees about whom there were various concerns, related not merely to loyalty but also issues such as drunkenness and incompetence. The effect of McCarthy's speech, in a nation already worried by the aggressiveness of the Soviet Union in Europe and alarmed by the trial of Alger Hiss then in progress, was electric. McCarthy's accusation was seen as an explanation for the fall of China to the Maoists and the Soviets' development of the atomic bomb the year before. McCarthy himself was taken aback by the massive media response to the speech, and continually revised both his charges and his figures over the following days, a characteristic feature of his method of operation. In Salt Lake City, Utah, a few days later, he cited a figure of 57, and in the Senate on February 20 he claimed 81. He made a marathon speech discussing all these cases in detail, but the evidence for many was tenuous or non-existent; nevertheless, the impact of the speech was considerable. The Senate convened the Tydings Committee to examine the charges, which eventually found them to be groundless. Three days after the committee dismissed McCarthy's claims, the FBI arrested Julius Rosenberg on charges of espionage for assisting the Soviet Union in obtaining information from the Manhattan Project to develop an atomic weapon. McCarthy attempted to engage in the political destruction of his critics, an aim he achieved when he campaigned against four-term incumbent Millard Tydings in 1950, in a victory that severely intimidated his would-be critics. This election was later called one of the dirtiest in American political history. A doctored photograph of Tydings conjoined with a well-known Communist was widely distributed, effectively ending Tydings' career. McCarthy once assaulted a journalist, Drew Pearson, in a Congressional restroom. McCarthy, who admitted the assault, claimed he merely "slapped" Pearson. Pearson said that McCarthy "kicked me in the groin. Twice."

Anti-Communism

Drew Pearson From 1950 to 1953, McCarthy continued to press his accusations that the government was failing to deal with Communism within its ranks, which increased his approval rating and gained him a powerful national following. His finances were investigated by a Senate panel in 1952; its report cited questionable behavior in his campaigns and irregularities in his finances, but found no grounds for legal action. He married Jean Kerr, a researcher in his office, on September 29, 1953. McCarthy's charges of "Communist influences" within the government probably aided the Republican Party's fortunes in the 1952 elections; it is probable that the defeat of more than one Democratic candidate for national office in 1952 was due at least in part to accusations against him by McCarthy. The party leadership, recognizing his immense popularity and his value as a stick with which to beat liberal Democrats, appointed him chairman of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. His unreliability and evasiveness, however, meant he was never completely trusted by the party (and particularly by President Dwight Eisenhower, who once said privately that he didn't "want to get into a pissing contest with that skunk!") One of McCarthy's higher-profile targets was General George C. Marshall. McCarthy and Senator William Jenner of Indiana accused Marshall of treason. Eisenhower wrote a speech in which he included a spirited defense of General Marshall, but he was later convinced to remove this passage. Truman turned bitterly against Eisenhower because of this, calling Eisenhower a coward because he owed his career to General Marshall. McCarthy's committee, unlike the House Committee on Un-American Activities and the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, focused on government institutions. It first made an investigation into bureaucracy at Voice of America, then forced the withdrawal of supposedly pro-Communist literature from the State Department's overseas information library. Meanwhile, McCarthy continued to make accusations of Communist influence within the government. This angered Eisenhower, who, while not criticizing the popular Senator publicly, began behind-the-scenes work to remove him from his position of influence. Several noted persons resigned from the committee fairly early into McCarthy's administration of it. These resignations led to the appointment of one "B. Matthews" as executive director of the board. Matthews was a former member of several "Communist-front" organizations, in which he claimed to have joined more than any other American. However, when he fell out of favor with the radical groups of the 1930s, he became a fervent anti-Communist. Matthews was an ordained Methodist minister and was therefore often referred to as a "Dr. Matthews," although he held no degree. Matthews later resigned due to his portrayal of Communist sympathies among the nation's Protestant clergy in a paper called "Reds in Our Churches," which outraged several Senators. Through this critical period, however, McCarthy maintained control of the subcommittee and of whom it employed or chose not to. This course of action resulted in several more resignations.

McCarthy and Truman

Reds in Our Churches McCarthy sought to characterize President Truman and the Democratic party as soft on or even in league with the Communists. McCarthy's allegations fell flat with Truman who, unaware of decrypts which corroborated Elizabeth Bentley's debriefing, considered McCarthy "the best asset the Kremlin has." In 1947, it was apparent that no individual in the U.S. Government realized that evidence of massive Soviet espionage within the government was developing on twin tracks. There was an FBI counterintelligence investigation which empanelled a grand jury in New York, and the Army Signal Intelligence Service at Arlington Hall reading Soviet cipher decrypts. It was a case of one hand not knowing what the other was doing. So when McCarthy later made charges that the Truman administration knowingly protected Soviet agents, on the surface, this appeared to large sectors of the American public to be true. After the defections of Bentley and Igor Guzenko, and the gathering evidence of a "serious attack on American security by the Soviet Union", Truman tried to contain the subversion issue within the Executive Branch with Executive Order 9835 of 21 March 1947, and prevent congressional investigations, by instituting loyalty and security checks in the government.

McCarthy and Eisenhower

Eisenhower, a candidate for the presidency in the 1952 election, disagreed with McCarthy's tactics, but on one occasion was required to make a campaign stop with him in Wisconsin. There, he intended to make a comment denouncing McCarthy's agenda, but under the advice of a conservative colleague, cut that part from his speech. He was widely criticized during his campaign for "selling out" to pressure and giving up his personal convictions because of party pressures. After being elected president, he made it clear to those close to him that he did not approve of McCarthy or his proceedings and he worked actively to shut down his operation. At the same time, not directly confronting McCarthy may have prolonged his power by showing that even the President was afraid to criticize him directly.

Fall of McCarthy

In the fall of 1953, McCarthy's committee began its ill-fated inquiry into the United States Army. It attempted to uncover a spy ring in the Army Signal Corps, but failed. The committee came to focus its attention on an Army dentist, Irving Peress, who took the Fifth Amendment twenty times under sustained questioning. Peress was accused of recruiting military personnel into the Communist Party. It is known for certain that Peress refused to answer questions on Defense Department forms concerning membership in "subversive organizations," and that the Army Surgeon General had recommended his dismissal early in 1953. McCarthy expressed serious concerns that Peress had not been discharged after that recommendation, but instead had been promoted to the rank of Major. In examining this latter question, McCarthy brought hostile media attention upon himself concerning his treatment of General Ralph W. Zwicker. Among other things, McCarthy compared Zwicker's intelligence to that of a "five-year-old child," and stated that Zwicker was "not fit to wear the uniform of a General." Charles Potter was one of the few Republican Senators to speak out against McCarthy. He later wrote a book called Days Of Shame in which he lambasted his fellow Senator. Early in 1954, the Army accused McCarthy and his chief counsel, Roy Cohn, of pressuring the Army to give favorable treatment to another former aide and friend of Cohn's, G. David Schine. McCarthy claimed that the accusation was made in bad faith, in retaliation for his questioning of Zwicker the previous year. G. David Schine]] The Senate convened the Army-McCarthy Hearings into the matter, which was broadcast live and on television. In one memorable interchange, McCarthy revealed that the Army's attorney general, Joseph Welch, had hired a lawyer who had previously worked for a group supposedly linked to the Communist Party. (This revelation was explicitly in retaliation for Welch's combative questioning.) This led to Welch's famous rebuke: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?" These proceedings have been recorded in the documentary film Point of Order! The Senate voted 67 to 22 on December 2, 1954, to condemn McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute," the first time a Senator was censured for actions in a past session of Congress. Several members of the U.S. Senate opposed McCarthy well before 1953. One example is U.S. Senator Margaret Chase Smith, a Maine Republican (and the only woman in the Senate at the time) who delivered her "Declaration of Conscience" on June 1, 1950, criticizing both the Executive and Legislative branches' use of smear tactics without mentioning McCarthy or anyone else by name. Smith also said "The Democratic administration has greatly lost the confidence of the American people by its complacency to the threat of Communism and the leak of vital secrets to Russia through key officials of the Democratic administration." [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/SmithDeclaration.pdf] Six other Republican Senators, Wayne Morse, Irving M. Ives, Charles W. Tobey, Edward John Thye, George Aiken and Robert C. Hendrickson joined her in condemning McCarthy's tactics. Vermont Senator Ralph E. Flanders also condemned McCarthy on the floor of the Senate and he introduced the resolution to censure him. McCarthy referred to Smith and her fellow Senators as "Snow White and the 6 dwarves." One of the most prominent attacks on McCarthy's methods, which has recently been dramatized in the 2005 film Good Night, and Good Luck, was an episode of the TV documentary series See It Now, hosted by respected journalist Edward R. Murrow, which was broadcast on March 9, 1954. The show consisted mostly of clips of McCarthy speaking, so any negative reaction would be mostly from McCarthy's own words. In the clips, McCarthy accuses the Democratic party of "twenty years of treason" (1933-1953, in his estimation, the Administrations of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Harry Truman), and berates witnesses, including an Army general. The Murrow report sparked a nationwide popular opinion backlash against McCarthy, in large part due to the fact that he was now seen, for the first time by many Americans, to be a flesh-and-blood, moving, speaking figure whose statements were immediately and publicly challenged, rather than a name in a newspaper story and sometimes an accompanying photograph. To counter the negative publicity, McCarthy appeared on See It Now about three weeks after the original episode and made a number of personal attacks and charges against Murrow. However, his method of delivery had been designed for a live audience, not a nationwide broadcast one; the result of this appearance was a further decline in his popularity. President Eisenhower, now free of McCarthy's political intimidation and the always potential threat of American Catholic electoral displeasure, referred to "McCarthywasm" to a reporter. McCarthy had always been a heavy drinker, one of the things that had helped him develop amicable relationships with many members of the press. Angered and depressed over his censure, his heavy drinking became full-scale alcoholism. This aggravated his existing weak health and caused serious diseases. He finally died of acute hepatitis in Bethesda Naval Hospital on May 2, 1957, at the age of 48, and was given a state funeral attended by 70 Senators. St. Matthew's Cathedral performed a Solemn Pontifical Requiem before over a hundred priests and 2,000 others. He was buried in St. Mary's Parish Cemetery, Appleton, Wisconsin. He was survived by his wife, Jean, and their adopted daughter, Tierney. In addition to being a heavy drinker, Senator McCarthy may have been addicted to morphine. In his 1961 memoir The Murderers, Harry Anslinger, U.S. Commission of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, admitted to regularly supplying morphine to "one of the most influential members of the Congress of the United States." The story strongly suggests that the Senator was Joseph McCarthy. This theory was supported by Anslinger's biographer, John C. McWilliams, in The Protectors. In 1953, playwright Arthur Miller wrote his play The Crucible, which uses the Salem Witch Trials of 1692 as an allegory for McCarthyism. Miller was named by Elia Kazan as having attended Communist Party meetings. He was brought before HUAC in 1956.

VENONA files

In 1995, when the VENONA transcripts were declassified, further detailed information was revealed about Soviet espionage in the U.S. VENONA specifically references at least 349 people in the U.S.—including citizens, immigrants, and permanent residents—whom the NSA identified engaged in clandestine activities with Soviet intelligence agencies. It is generally believed that McCarthy had no access to VENONA intelligence, but VENONA supports the view that some of the individuals accused by McCarthy were indeed Soviet agents. These are several prominent examples:
- Mary Jane Keeney, a United Nations employee, and her husband Philip, who worked in the Office of Strategic Services;
- Lauchlin Currie, a special assistant to President Roosevelt;
- Virginius Frank Coe, Director of Division of Monetary Research, U.S. Treasury; Technical Secretary at the Bretton Woods Conference; International Monetary Fund
- William Ludwig Ullman, delegate to the United Nations Charter Conference and Bretton Woods Conference;
- Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, Chief Planning Technician, Procurement Division, U.S. Treasury and head of the Silvermaster network of spies;
- Harold Glasser, U.S. Treasury Representative to the Allied High Commission in Italy;
- Four staff members of the LaFollette Civil Liberties Committee, a Senate subcommittee on labor rights chaired by Senator Robert La Follette, Jr., whom McCarthy defeated for election in 1946;
- Allan Rosenberg, Chief of the Economic Institution Staff, Foreign Economic Administration; Counsel to the National Labor Relations Board; argued cases before the United States Supreme Court.
- Cedric Belfrage journalist; British Security Coordination However, McCarthy himself was consistently unable to provide any evidence for his allegations. On one particular occasion, he declared in a floor speech that he would happily turn over evidence of subversive activities by government employees, whereupon Senator Herbert Lehman approached him and held out his hand. McCarthy, having no evidence, ignored Lehman, as did the rest of the Senate, testifying to other Senators' fear of McCarthy's political attacks. Many of the people McCarthy accused of Communist party membership were not later identified in VENONA intellegence as being Soviet espionage agents.

HUAC

McCarthy is often incorrectly described as part of the House Committee on Un-American Activities (technically, HCUA, but generally known as HUAC), best known for the investigation of Alger Hiss which helped bring Richard Nixon into prominence. HUAC was established in May of 1938 as the "Dies Committee" before McCarthy was elected to the Federal office, and, being a House committee, had no connection with McCarthy, who served in the Senate.

Additional reading

- Bayley, Edwin R. Joe McCarthy and the Press (University of Wisconsin Press, 1981)
- Belfrage, Cedric The American Inquisition, 1945-1960: A Profile of the "McCarthy Era" (Thunder's Mouth Press, 1989)
- Coulter, Ann Treason: Liberal Treachery From the Cold War to the War on Terrorism" (Crown Forum, 2003)
- Daynes, Gary Making Villains, Making Heroes: Joseph R. McCarthy, Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Politics of American Memory (Garland Pub., 1997)
- Feldstein, Richard. "Political Correctness: A response from the cultural Left" (University of Minnesota Press, 1997) (linking McCarthyite tactics with conservative attacks on politically correct academics)
- Fried, Richard M. Men against McCarthy (Columbia University Press, 1976)
- Fried, Richard M. Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective (Oxford University Press, 1990)
- McCarthy, Joseph America's Retreat from Victory (Western Islands Publishing, 1952)
- McCarthy, Joseph McCarthyism, the Fight for America (Devin-Adair Co., 1952)
- Oshinsky, David Senator Joseph McCarthy and the American Labor Movement (University of Missouri Press, 1976)
- Rabinowitz, Victor "Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir" (University of Illinois Press, 1996)
- Ranville, Michael To Strike at a King: The Turning Point in the McCarthy Witch Hunts (Momentum Books, 1997)
- Rosteck, Thomas See It Now Confronts McCarthyism: Television Documentary and the Politics of Representation (University of Alabama Press, 1994)
- Rovere, Richard Halworth Senator Joe McCarthy (Harcourt Brace, 1959)
- Watkins, Arthur Vivian. Enough rope; the inside story of the censure of Senator Joe McCarthy by his colleagues, the controversial hearings that signaled the end of a turbulent career and a fearsome era in American public life (Prentice Hall, 1969)
- Herman, Arthur. Joseph McCarthy : Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator (Free Press, 1999)

References

- [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/senate12cp107.html US Government declassified sealed documents of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations] - used in article
- [http://discover.npr.org/features/feature.jhtml?wfId=1254348 NPR Talk Of The Nation] - used in article
- [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/mccarthy/telegram.htm 11 February 1950 McCarthy to Truman telegram]; "We have been able to compile a list of 57 Communists in the State Department. This list is available to you."
- [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/exhibit_documents/index.php?tldate=1950-02-11&groupid=3435&pagenumber=1&collectionid=mccarthy Truman Draft reply to McCarthy, Truman Library]
- [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/exhibit_documents/index.php?tldate=1950-03-30&groupid=3436&pagenumber=1&collectionid=mccarthy Radio Conference with Truman, Truman Library]
- [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/60.htm InfoUSA, Basic Readings in US Democracy, Censure of Joeseph McCarthy]
- [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/dwighteisenhower/ University of Virginia's American Presidency site on Eisenhower]

Notes

- NSA Archives, National Cyptological Museum, [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sanders/214/other/handouts/VenonaChrono.html Venona Chronology]; "~September 1: Col. Carter Clarke briefs the FBI's liaison officer Robert J. Lamphere on the break into Soviet diplomatic traffic. September: Carter W. Clarke of G-2 advises S. Wesley Reynolds, FBI, of successes at Arlington Hall on KGB espionage messages."
- Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy, [http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html Appendix A, 7. The Cold War]; "In November 1945 Elizabeth Bentley informed the FBI of her activities as a Soviet courier, which in turn led to renewed interest in Chambers. In late August or early September 1947, the FBI was informed that the Army Security Agency had begun to break into Soviet espionage messages".
- National Security Agency, Venona Archives, Robert L. Benson, Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations,[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html The VENONA Breakthroughs]; " An Arlington Hall report on 22 July 1947 showed that the Soviet message traffic contained dozens, probably hundreds, of covernames, many of KGB agents, including ANTENNA and LIBERAL (later identified as Julius Rosenberg). One message mentioned that LIBERAL's wife was named "Ethel." General Carter W. Clarke, the assistant G-2, called the FBI liaison officer to G-2 and told him that the Army had begun to break into Soviet intelligence service traffic, and that the traffic indicated a massive Soviet espionage effort in the U.S."
- Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive, [http://www.nacic.gov/history/CIReaderPlain/Vol3Chap1.pdf Counterintelligence Reader, Vol. 3, Chap. 1, pg.47], "Polls taken at the time revealed that a majority of Americans believed that Communism at home and abroad was a serious threat to US security".
- Margareet Chase Smith, [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/SmithDeclaration.pdf Declaration of Conscience, pg. 2], 1 June 1950, U.S. Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 81st Congress, 2nd sess., pp. 7894-95. "The Democratic administration has greatly lost the confidence of the American people by its complacency to the threat of communism here at home and the leak of vital secrets to Russia through key officials of the Democtaric administration. There are enough proved cases to make this point without diluting our criticism with unproved charges"; "..there have been enough proved cases, such as the Amerasia case, the Hiss case, the Coplon case, the Gold case, to cause nationwide distrust and strong suspicion that there may be something to the unproved, sensational accusations".
- Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy, [http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html Appendix A, 7. The Cold War]; "proof that there had been a serious attack on American security by the Soviet Union, with considerable assistance from what was, indeed, an 'enemy within.' The fact that we knew this was now known to, or sufficiently surmised by, the Soviet authorities. Only the American public was denied this information."
- National Archives and Records Administration, Harry S. Truman, Executive Order 9835, Prescribing Procedures for the Administration of an Employees Loyalty Program in the Executive Branch of the Government [http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1947.html#9835]
- Commission on Secrecy Report, [http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa3.html Appendix A, 3. Loyalty]
- Howard Zinn, [http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/zinn-chap16.html A People's History of the United States], Chap. 16, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1980; "Though Truman would later complain of the 'great wave of hysteria' sweeping the nation, his commitment to victory over communism, to completely safeguarding the United States from external and internal threats, was in large measure responsible for creating that very hysteria. "

External links

- [http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/lessons/mccarthy_telegram/mccarthy_telegram.html Digital Classroom information on McCarthy] "helping to shape our foreign policy"
- [http://history1900s.about.com/cs/joemccarthy/ The History Net page on McCarthy]
- [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/welch-mccarthy.html The McCarthy-Welch exchange]
- [http://www.marquette.edu/library/collections/archives/Mss/JRM/mss-JRM.html Joseph McCarthy Papers, Marquette University Library]
- FBI Memo Referencing 206 Communists in Government
- [http://foia.fbi.gov/venona/venona.pdf FBI Belmont to Boardman memo, 26 November 1957] (PDF pgs. 74-75; also pg. 20) referencing "206" Soviet espionage agents
- [http://www.infoage.org/mccarthy.html] Information on McCarthy's investigations of the Signal Corps, including transcripts of the hearings and more recent interviews. Defenses of McCarthy
- [http://www.spongobongo.com/em/em9820.htm Joe McCarthy Was Right]
- By Human Events Online, a conservative weekly:
- [http://www.humaneventsonline.com/article.php?id=689 Editor Taints Recently Published Hearings: How Senate Historian Botched Data on McCarthy]
- [http://www.humaneventsonline.com/article.php?id=474 Levin and Collins Trigger Disinformation: Senate Historian Clams Up When Queried On McCarthy]
- By The New American, John Birch Society:
- [http://www.thenewamerican.com/tna/2003/06-16-2003/vo19no12_witches.htm McCarthy's "Witches"]
- [http://www.thenewamerican.com/tna/1996/vo12no18/vo12no18_mccarthy.htm The Real McCarthy Record]
- By Opinion Editorials, a conservative website:
- [http://www.opinioneditorials.com/freedomwriters/burns_20030513.html The 1950's Reign Of Terror Was AGAINST McCarthy - Not By Him!] Critics of McCarthy
- Critical book links
- [http://www.english.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/mccarthy-bio.html Excerpt from Richard H. Rovere's book ' Senator Joe McCarthy']
- [http://www.dimensional.com/~randl/mccart.htm Paper from 'From Seeds of Repression; Harry S. Truman and the Origins of McCarthyism' by Athan Theoharis, Quadrangle Books, Chicago, 1971; 'McCarthy and McCarthyism in Wisconsin', Michael O'Brien, University of Missouri Press, Columbia and London, 1980; Blacklist: 'Hollywood on Trial', AMC, broadcast Feb 28, 1996]
- Student Paper on McCarthy
- [http://www.jessefriedman.com/writings/joemccarthy.shtml Essay by 8th grader Jesse Friedman called 'The Fight for America' which calls McCarthy 'greatest demagogue in the history of America'] McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph Category:Anti-communism ko:??? ??? ja:???????????

Appleton, Wisconsin

Appleton is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin, on the Fox River. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 70,087. It is the county seat of Outagamie County, but extends into both Calumet County and Winnebago County. Appleton was the childhood home of magician Harry Houdini, author Edna Ferber and Iwo Jima flag-raiser John Bradley, and is the birthplace of actor Willem Dafoe,and football player Rocky Bleier. Sen. Joseph McCarthy, who was born nearby in Grand Chute, Wisconsin, is buried in Appleton, in St Mary's Parish Cemetery. Appleton also had the first telephone in all Wisconsin and the first incandescent light in any city beyond the East Coast. The first hydroelectric power was generated in Appleton, on the Fox River. The city has commercial air service provided at Outagamie County Regional Airport.

Geography

Outagamie County Regional AirportAppleton is located at 44°15'56" North, 88°24'6" West (44.265536, -88.401655). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 55.3 km² (21.4 mi²). 54.1 km² (20.9 mi²) of it is land and 1.2 km² (0.5 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 2.20% water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 70,087 people, 26,864 households, and 17,676 families residing in the city. The population density is 1,296.0/km² (3,355.9/mi²). There are 27,736 housing units at an average density of 512.9/km² (1,328.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 91.48% White, 0.99% African American, 0.57% Native American, 4.61% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.05% from other races, and 1.27% from two or more races. 2.53% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 26,864 households out of which 35.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.9% are married couples living together, 8.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% are non-families. 27.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.52 and the average family size is 3.13. In the city the population is spread out with 27.4% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 96.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 93.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $47,285, and the median income for a family is $57,097. Males have a median income of $40,459 versus $25,890 for females. The per capita income for the city is $22,478. 5.5% of the population and 3.3% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 7.1% of those under the age of 18 and 4.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Educational Institutions

Lawrence University, a private liberal arts college, is located in Appleton on the shores of the Fox River. University of Wisconsin-Fox Valley, a two-year collegiate campus of the University of Wisconsin System.

Points of interest

- Memorial Park Arboretum and Gardens

External links

- [http://www.appleton.org/ City of Appleton]
- [http://www.apl.org/ Appleton Public Library]
- [http://www.focol.org/ Fox Cities Online Community Network]
- [http://www.foxvalleymemory.org/ Fox Valley Memory - local history portal]
- [http://www.wisinfo.com/postcrescent/ Appleton Post-Crescent newspaper]
- [http://www.foxvalleyhistory.org/houdini/ Outagamie County Historical Society]
- [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.AppletonPlats Appleton Public Library Local History Collection]: A digital collection documenting the history of this area, from the Appleton Public Library and presented by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.
- Category:Cities in Wisconsin Category:Outagamie County, Wisconsin Category:Calumet County, Wisconsin Category:Winnebago County, Wisconsin ja:アップルトン (ウィスコンシン州)

ROTC

The Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) is a training program of the United States armed forces present on college campuses to recruit and educate commissioned officers. It is designed as a college elective, and studies focus on leadership development, problem solving, strategic planning, and professional ethics. commissioned officer ROTC produces 60 percent of all officers in the U.S. armed forces, and 75 percent of U.S. Army officers. Each of the services offer competitive, merit-based scholarships to ROTC students, often covering full tuition for college. U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force ROTC students are referred to as cadets, while U.S. Navy ROTC students are known as midshipmen. US Marine Corps officer candidates commission through the Naval ROTC program. Army units are organized as Brigades and Battalions. Air Force units are "Detachments" with the students organized into Wings, Groups, Squadrons, and Flights, like the active Air Force. Navy units are called NROTCU with an abbreviation of the host University or College. For example, the University of Minnesota unit is "NROTCU UNIV OF MN." The students are organized as a battalion. If the Marine students are integrated with the Navy students, there are companies, but having the Navy students in Departments and Divisions like a ship, and the Marines in a separate company is not unknown. Also, the Philippine Military has an ROTC program, descended from the American program from its rule in the islands.

General History

The concept of ROTC began with the Morrill Act of 1862 which established the "land grant" colleges. Part of the federal government's requirement for these schools was that they include military tactics as part of their curriculum, forming what became known as Army ROTC. Until the 1960s, many major universities required compulsory ROTC for all of their students. However, because of the protests that culminated in the Opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, compulsory ROTC was dropped in favor of voluntary programs [http://www.fsm-a.org/stacks/AP_files/APCompulsROTC.html]. In some places ROTC was expelled from campus altogether, although it was always possible to participate in off-campus ROTC. In recent years, concerted efforts are being made at some Ivy League universities that have previously banned ROTC, including Harvard and Columbia, to return ROTC to campus. In the 21st century, the debate often focuses around the law signed in 1993 by President Bill Clinton which requires the military to discriminate based on the declared sexual orientation of its members (see Don't ask, don't tell). Some schools believe this legal mandate would require them to waive or amend their non-discrimination policies.

U.S. Army ROTC History

Don't ask, don't tell The concept of Army ROTC began with the Morrill Act of 1862 which established the "land grant" colleges. Part of the federal government's requirement for these schools was that they include military tactics as part of their curriculum. However, Army ROTC as we know it today was created by the National Defense Act of 1916 and commissioned its first class of lieutenants in 1920. In 1960 General George H. Decker, ROTC commissionee at Lafayette College, became the first ROTC graduate named Chief of Staff of the Army. Other Army Chiefs of Staff to come out of ROTC include General Fred C. Weyand (University of California-Berkeley) and General Gordon Sullivan Norwich University. General Colin Powell, ROTC commissionee at the City University of New York, served as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during Operation Desert Storm and later as Secretary of State from 2001 - 2005. General Hugh Shelton, commissioned out of North Carolina State University, was also a Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The college ROTC program to produce the most 4-star Army generals is North Carolina State University, second only to the United States Military Academy in the number of 4-star generals produced. The University of Oregon has produced the highest number of general officers out of the nonmilitary ROTC schools, with a total of 44 flag officers.

U.S. Air Force ROTC History

United States Military Academy United States Military Academy (As quoted from [http://www.afrotc.com/overview/history/ Air Force ROTC's Official Website]) The first Air ROTC units were established between 1920 and 1923 at the University of California at Berkeley, Georgia Institute of Technology, the University of Illinois, the University of Washington, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College. After World War II Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, chief of staff of the War Department, signed General Order No. 124, establishing Air ROTC units at 77 colleges and universities throughout the nation. The Air Force ROTC Vitalization Act of 1964 authorized a new two-year Senior Program, scholarships and a Junior Program. An experimental program to commission women through Air Force ROTC was first conducted from 1956 to 1960. Women were again enrolled in the Senior Program, starting in 1969, and in the Junior Program four years later. Eligible Air Force enlisted men and women pursuing a college degree who are interested in becoming commissioned officers are given that opportunity through competition in the Air Force ROTC Airman Scholarship and Commissioning Program, established in 1973. In 1978, Air Training Command, with headquarters at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas, assumed responsibility for the Air Force ROTC programs. On July 1, 1993, Air Training Command merged with Air University to form Air Education and Training Command. Air University became a direct reporting unit under Air Education and Training Command, and Air Force ROTC realigned under Air University. In February 1997, in an effort to reduce duplication of effort and streamline administrative and reporting procedures within Air University, Air Force ROTC and Officer Training School realigned under the newly created umbrella organization, Air Force Officer Accession and Training Schools. This restructuring placed oversight for three-quarters of Air Force officer production under one command, the AFOATS commander—a brigadier general.

U.S. Naval ROTC History

The U.S. Naval ROTC program was founded in 1926. In 1932 the Marine Corps joined the program, and in 1990, the first Navy Nurse Corps scholarships were awarded.

External links

- [http://www.armyrotc.com U.S. Army ROTC]
- [http://www.afrotc.com U.S. Air Force ROTC]
- [https://www.nrotc.navy.mil/ U.S. Naval ROTC]
- [http://www.advocatesforrotc.org Advocates For ROTC] Category:Military education and training in the United States Category:United States armed forces

Andrew W. Mellon Foundation

The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation is a foundation endowed with wealth accumulated by the late Andrew W. Mellon. It is the product of the 1969 merger of the Avalon Foundation and the Old Dominion Foundation. These foundations were set up separately by the children of Andrew W. Mellon, Paul Mellon and Ailsa Mellon-Bruce. It is housed in the expanded former offices of the Bollingen Foundation, another educational philanthropy supported by Paul Mellon. William G. Bowen is the Foundation's president. His predecessors have included Jack Sawyer and Nathan Pusey. As of July 1 2006, its president will be Don Michael Randel, who is currently the President of the University of Chicago.

Core Areas of Endowment

- higher education, including the humanities, libraries, and scholarly communications,
- museums and art conservation
- performing arts
- conservation and the environment
- public affairs

Mellon Research Group

Mellon has a modest research group that has investigated doctoral education, collegiate admissions, independent research libraries, charitable nonprofits, scholarly communcations, and other issues in order to ensure that the foundation's grants would be well-informed and more effective. Some of the recent publications of this effect include Equity and Excellence in American Higher Education, Reclaiming the Game: College Sports and Educational Values, JSTOR: A History, The Game of Life: College Sports and Educational Values, and The Shape of the River. Mellon's endowment has fluctuated in the range of $4-5 billion dollars in recent years, and its annual grantmaking has been on the order of $200 million.

External links

- [http://www.mellon.org/ The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation official site] Category:Foundations Category:National Medal of Arts recipients

Category:1907 births

ko:분류:1907년 태어남 ja:Category:1907年生

Category:Presidents of Harvard University

The President is the chief administrator of Harvard University, a major private academic institution of higher learning, located in they city of Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the United States of America. Ex officio the chairman of the Harvard Corporation, he/she is appointed by and is responsible to the other members of that body, who delegate to him/her the day-to-day running of the university. Category:Harvard University Harvard

Category:American university presidents

University American

Ine Marie Eriksen

]] Ine Marie Eriksen (født 2. mai 1976 i Lørenskog) er en norsk politiker (H). Hun ble innvalgt på Stortinget fra Oslo i 2001 som vararepresentant (møtte fast for Per Kristian Foss), full Stortingsrepresentant fra 2005. Medlem av Familie-, kultur- og administrasjonskomitéen.

Eksterne lenker

- [http://epos.stortinget.no/biografi.aspx?initialer=IME Stortinget.no - Biografi]
- [http://www.hoyre.no/Import/personer/ine_marie_eriksen hoyre.no -Biografi] Eriksen, Ine Marie Eriksen, Ine Marie

sms gate sms narkotyki jastrz�bia g�ra NLP

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